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Dance in Thailand (Thai:นาฏศิลป์,pronounced[nāːt.tā.sǐn] orThai:นาฏกรรม,pronounced[nāːt.tā.kām]) is the maindramaticart form inThailand. Thaidance can be divided into two major categories,high art (classical dance) andlow art (folk dance).
The termnattasin (Thai:นาฏศิลป์) means "art of the classical Thai dance, art of drama", and the termnattakam (Thai:นาฏกรรม) means "poetry, music drama and dance", according toThe Thai Official Dictionary of Royal Institute 2545 BE. Both terms are derived fromSanskrit:
The term for dance inThai, also known as the Dance of the Four Regions, is as follows:
While the individual termsten andram have ancientTai origins, their combination to formtenram (Thai: เต้นรำ) refers to social or ballroom dancing in contemporaryThai.[9] It is important to note that the concept of Western-style ballroom dance was introduced to Thailand much later, primarily during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, not in the early 14th century.[12]
However, the termsfon,ram, andrabam themselves were indeed present in various forms during theSukhothai period. These terms evolved over time to encompass a wide array of Thai traditional dances, including classical forms likeRam Baht Sakunee and folk dances such asTen Kam Ram Kiew.[13]
TheThai termkhon (Thai: โขน), which refers to a highly stylized masked dance-drama, is predominantly associated with performances of theRamakien, the Thai national epic derived from the IndianRamayana.[16] The precise etymology of the word "khon" remains a subject of academic discussion.
It is widely acknowledged that Thai performing arts, includingKhon, have been significantly influenced byIndian cultural traditions and the epic narratives of theRamayana. However, direct linguistic derivation from specific terms like theTamilkōṉ (Tamil: கோன்), meaning "king or god," is not universally accepted among linguists and historians as the definitive origin of theThai word "khon".[13][6] The evolution of Khon is understood as a complex interplay of indigenous artistic traditions and adaptations of foreign influences, particularly fromIndia and other parts ofAsia, culminating in a uniqueThai art form.[16][17]
There are various hypothesis in which theThai termlakon (also spelt: lakorn, lakhon) derives from. Scholarly consensus points to theOld Khmer termlakhon (Khmer: ល្ខោន) meaning “theatre, drama, play” which ultimately originated from the Pali/Sanskrit rootlakkhaṇa/lakṣaṇa (Sanskrit: लक्षण) meaning “characteristic”.[18] This theory is more popularized amongst scholars due to the historical influence of ancientKhmer culture and linguistics on early Thai civilizations. Another theory is that theThai termlakon derives from theJavanese wordlakon[19] (Javanese:ꦭꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀), a derivation oflakuan,lagon andlaku,[20] meaning "to walk, to act, to run". Following this theory,Thai historian PrinceDamrong Rajanubhab hypothesized that the termlakon originated from the name ofNakhon Si Thammarat when Javanese culture during theAyutthaya period was first introduced.[19]: 20
Thai classical dance forms, like many performing arts inSoutheast Asia, are heavily influenced byancient Indian art.[21] They include ideas from theNatya Shastra, an importantSanskrit text on the performing arts that describes basic dance poses and movements known as karanas.[22] The depiction of 108 karanas in temples like theNataraja Temple inChidambaram, India, shows these principles that resonated throughout the region.[23] However, Thai dance developed into a unique blend. It combined these outside influences with local traditions and innovations that grew from interactions with nearby cultures, especially theKhmer Empire.[4][24]
Archaeological evidence offers a glimpse into the early performing arts traditions that later shaped Thai classical dance. Stuccos and sculptures showing dance-like poses, dating back to theDvaravati era (6th–11th century CE), have been found at sites like Khok Mai Den and Chansen inNakhon Sawan, as well as Ban Khu Bua inRatchaburi.[25] TheseDvaravati artifacts show a clear influence fromIndian culture in their iconography and artistic expression.[21] In addition, later archaeological discoveries from theKhmer period, highlighted by the detailed dance figures atPrasat Phimai inNakhon Ratchasima (primarily 11th–12th century CE), were also important in the developing performing arts scene of the region.[23][26]
Over time, Thai dance grew through a steady blend of cultural influences. It transformed various elements into a unique artistic form. This evolution involved creatively using different cultural aspects, musical instruments, and storytelling traditions fromIndia,China, theMalay world,Mon,Khmer,Myanmar, and local groups in theChao Phraya River Basin.[4][24] Through this broad mixing and local adaptation, these varied influences were reshaped. This process helped create a distinct Thai dance identity that, while connected to its historical roots in neighboring cultures, developed its own aesthetic and performance styles.[4][27]
Traditional accounts and historical narratives suggest that early forms of martial dance emerged in kingdoms associated withTai-speaking peoples in mainlandSoutheast Asia. One tradition, often linked to the historical kingdom ofNanzhao, which dates from the 8th century CE onwards, is known as Fon Joeng.[2][28] This art form, practiced bynorthern Thai peoples, combines ceremonial dance for rituals with martial movements for self-defense. It showcases both offensive and defensive fighting styles.[4] Fon Joeng features various drum rhythms and is traditionally believed to have been passed down through a lineage that includes theNgoenyang andLanna kingdoms. Its cultural influences extend to other Tai states likeSukhothai.[2][29] Today, Fon Joeng is still practiced in Thailand as a recreational dance and is recognized as a historical precursor to elements found in the martial art ofMuay Thai.[24]
Evidence from theSukhothai period, particularly the famous inscription attributed toKing Ramkhamhaeng, shows that public festivities and performing arts were present. The inscription describes the sounds of pipes and drums during a celebration, likely theKathina festival. This suggests that music and festive activities played a role in community life.[30] While these records confirm the existence of performances, scholars point out that the evidence highlights communal, ritualistic, or festive events rather than structured, narrative drama, which arose in later periods.[31] The performing arts in theSukhothai kingdom were part of a larger regional mix, combining various cultural influences from mainland Southeast Asia during that time.[32][31]
Early inscriptions indicate that public performances were festive. However, more structured dance-drama based on stories developed in the region due to a blend of cultures. The emerging states in theChao Phraya basin, such asSukhothai, interacted closely with the well-establishedMon andKhmer civilizations.[31] The Khmer, especially, had a rich court culture atAngkor, filled with complex, Indian-influenced religious and theatrical traditions.[33] As Sukhothai gained power, it started to adopt and modify these respected Khmer performance styles, which focused on storytelling and graceful movement. This cultural blending played a key role in creating the classical dramatic arts later linked to Siamese courts, combining local traditions with the refined aesthetics of the Khmer.[31][33]
Further evidence of performance in this era comes from inscriptions and literature, although their details are often misunderstood. For instance, Sukhothai Inscription No. 8, dated 1357 CE, describes a royal pilgrimage marked by the sounds of horns, conches, drums, and other instruments. This creates a vivid image of ceremonial processions filled with music.[34][35] While this inscription confirms the importance of music in royal and religious events, it lacks specific verbs for dancing. A separate and influential literary work from the time, the Buddhist cosmological text Traibhumikatha (c. 1345), describes celestial beings (devas) in various heavens who entertain themselves by singing and performing. The text uses the general termlen (Thai: เล่น), meaning "to play" or "to perform," to refer to these heavenly activities.[36] Together, these sources show that music and performance were recognized concepts, connected with both earthly ceremonies and heavenly joy. They provide a basis for the more complex dramatic forms that would emerge in later centuries.
Investigating the vocabulary of performance from this period offers insight into its various origins. Historical linguists point out that key Thai terms for dance have unique roots. For instance, the general verb ram (Thai: รำ) comes fromTai, while the term for a choreographed, often ceremonial group performance, rabam (Thai: ระบำ), is generally accepted as a loanword fromOld Khmer (rapam).[37][38] This linguistic evidence aligns with art historical and archaeological findings that show significant Khmer cultural influence onSukhothai. Although Sukhothai rulers managed to gain political independence from the decliningKhmer empire, they also adopted important aspects of Angkorean court culture.[39] This included ideas of divine kingship, religious art, and state ceremony, which were the established standards of power and refinement in the area. Therefore, although Sukhothai created its own distinct artistic style, it was based on a deep connection to sophisticated Khmer aesthetic and performance traditions.[40]
Archaeological and historical evidence indicates that before the Ayutthaya Kingdom was officially established in the mid-14th century, the area was home to earlier settlements influenced by the Mon and especially the Khmer civilizations. The site that became Ayutthaya likely held strategic and cultural importance because of its location near the Chao Phraya River. It was under Khmer control before gradually shifting toward the influence of emerging Tai polities.[41][42] While the Sukhothai Kingdom was officially established earlier, around 1238 CE, Ayutthaya gained prominence later. By the 15th century, it became a major center of power in central Thailand.[43]
Ayutthaya was a diverse kingdom with a mix of different people, as noted by several European visitors in the 17th century.Simon de la Loubère, in his workDu Royaume de Siam, mentioned the presence of various ethnic groups, including Persians, Indians, Chinese, Malays, and others.[44] Nicolas Gervaise also highlighted the kingdom’s diversity, estimating that many urban residents were foreigners.[45] While it is hard to confirm exact demographic numbers, Ayutthaya’s position as a regional trade center drew immigrants from throughout Asia. This included communities such as Khmer, Mon, Lao, Burmese, Chinese, Cham, and Indian.[43] Some legal documents, like the Palace Law from 1358 CE, reference these groups, showing they were recognized in the kingdom’s administration. However, this recognition does not necessarily indicate their social status or how well they fit into society.[46]
ThePalace Law of Ayutthaya, especially the parts about court entertainment, mentions several types of performance art practiced in the royal court. These includelen (play or recreation),ram andrabam (dance),ra-beng (likely a type of dance or movement-based performance), andNang yai (large shadow puppetry). Other forms are open to interpretation since terminology and transliteration in historical records change over time.[2] French envoy Simon de la Loubère, who visited in 1687 and 1688, noted three main types of performances at the Siamese court:rabam (dance),lakhon (drama), andkhon (masked dance-drama).[44]
Thai classical dance-drama includes several distinct genres, such asLakhon chatri,Lakhon nok, andLakhon nai.Lakhon chatri, which started in southern Thailand, is closely related to theMenora performance tradition of the Malay Peninsula. This connection suggests shared roots with bothMon andMalay cultural practices.[47][48] While words likeram (to dance) andrabam (a stylized dance form) show up in later Thai literature and may indicate a link to earlier rituals and court traditions, there is not much written evidence that clearly explains their organized use during theSukhothai period.[39]
Khon is a highly stylized masked dance-drama performed at the royal court. It appears to be more fully developed during the Ayutthaya period, particularly by the 17th century.[43] Its narrative is based on theRamakien, a Thai version of the IndianRamayana.
Khmer cultural influence on the Siamese court, especially in dance-drama, began before themilitary invasion of Angkor in 1431. During the early Ayutthaya period, Siamese court traditions were greatly affected by interactions with the weakening Khmer empire, which had deep-rooted ritual and artistic practices linked to Hindu-Buddhist court culture.[49][50] Although the 1431 campaign underKing Borommarachathirat II was a key moment for Thai power, cultural exchange had already been happening through migration, intermarriage, and support from the elite. Many aspects of classical Thai court dance, such as masked performances like Khon and stylized movements in Lakhon, show structural similarities to Khmer court dance.[51]
According to performance scholar Surapone Virulrak, Thai court performance art changed a lot during the Ayutthaya period, especially between the 15th and 18th centuries. One important ritual,Chak nak Dukdamban, is a ceremonial enactment based on theSamudra Manthana myth from the IndianMahābhārata. This ritual was performed during special court events and religious festivals.[52] The myth, which involves churning the ocean to produce immortality, has a deep significance across South and Southeast Asia.
Beyond regional and folk traditions such as Manora, a dance-drama deeply rooted in southern Thailand’s diverse culture and influenced byIndian andMalay performance styles, the two most prominent forms of Thai classical dance drama are Khon and Lakhon Nai. These genres developed in royal courts and were historically performed by dancers trained in the palace. Research shows that Khon and Lakhon Nai were significantly influenced by Khmer court performances, especially during theAyutthaya period. This reflects broader patterns of cultural exchange in mainland Southeast Asia.[53][23] Likay, a more popular and improvisational form of folk theatre, did not just emerge as an alternative to court arts. It resulted from interactions among local traditions, Buddhist Jataka tales, and regional performance styles across the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia.[54]
When studying historical records and archaeological findings alongside classical dance postures from early manuscripts, the growth of drama during the Ayutthaya period seems to show a mix of regional influences. PrinceDamrong Rajanubhab’s work offers an early understanding of Thai performing arts. However, modern research highlights the varied origins of Lakhon. For instance, Lakhon Nai likely emerged in the royal court and shares strong similarities with Khmer classical dance, which had a notable presence in the area before and during Ayutthaya’s expansion.[23] At the same time, Lakhon Chatri, often linked to Southern traditions like Manora, was formed by local beliefs and performance styles, possibly influenced by Indian and Southeast Asian elements, including those fromMalay andJavanese cultures.[55]
Evidence of cultural transmission from theSrivijaya-influenced areas of the Malay Peninsula to what is now Southern Thailand can be seen in the spread of Indic religious practices, temple architecture, and literary traditions.[56][57] The story of Inao in Thai drama comes from theJavanese Panji cycle. This narrative tradition began in Java during the time after Srivijaya, likely in the 13th century, and was later adapted into Thai royal and folk performances likelakhon nai andlikay.[58]Borobudur, built in Central Java in the 9th century by theSailendra dynasty, shows the rich Buddhist culture of that time and Srivijaya’s influence in the region. However, it does not directly prove how performance traditions likeNang Yai orLikay later developed or spread into Ayutthaya.[59] Instead, the sharing of Southeast Asian theatrical themes took place through slower and more complex channels over centuries of cultural exchange.
Since theAyutthaya period (1350–1767), court and classical dance traditions in what is now Thailand have developed through a mix of cultural influences. These include earlier local styles fromSukhothai and Chaiya, significant Khmer court traditions from theKhmer Empire, and regionalMon andMalay influences.[61][62] Instead of forming in isolation, these dance forms show the interconnected nature of cultural exchange in Southeast Asia. Key performance traditions likeRamakien and Inao highlight this complexity. Ramakien adapts the Indic Ramayana story, influenced byKhmer andMon performance practices.[63] Inside and outside the royal courts, these traditions showed wider regional interactions shaped by politics, religion, and artistic support.[62][64]
After thefall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Burmese sack caused major cultural disruption. It led to the scattering of artists and a partial loss of dramatic works, such as those related toLakhon Nai. Some performers fled to cities that the Burmese did not occupy, likePhitsanulok andNakhon Si Thammarat. Others were captured and taken to Burma, creating a complex cultural exchange throughout the region.[43] Despite this chaos, theLakhon Nok tradition, which was more popular among the general public and performed outside royal circles, remained widespread and continued into later periods.[23] Some figures, like Princess Pinthawadi, the daughter of King Borommakot, helped pass on court customs into the early Rattanakosin period, but these customs were not kept exactly the same.
During theRattanakosin era,King Rama I ordered the restoration of Ramakien. This work relied on storytelling traditions that had been passed down orally and in writing since the Ayutthaya period. Instead of directly using Indian versions of theRamayana, like the Sanskrit, Tamil, or Bengali retellings, the Thai Ramakien was mainly shaped by Khmer adaptations. These adaptations had been part of the Ayutthayan court for a long time and were themselves regional takes on the Indian epic.[65][66]
The first detailed European record ofKhon and other Thai classical dances was made during the Ayutthaya Kingdom. The tradition and styles employed are almost identical to the Thai traditions we still see today. Historical evidence establishes that the Thai art of stage plays was already perfected by the 17th-century.Louis XIV, the Sun King of France, had a formal diplomatic relation with Ayutthaya'sKing Narai. In 1687, France sent the diplomatSimon de la Loubère to record all that he saw in the Siamese Kingdom and its traditions. In his famous accountDu Royaume de Siam, La Loubère carefully observed the classic 17th-century theatre of Siam, including an epic battle scene from aKhon performance, and recorded what he saw in great detail:[67]: 49
The Siamese have three sorts of Stage Plays: That which they call Cone [Khon] is a figure dance, to the sound of the violin and some other instruments. The dancers are masked and armed and represent rather combat than a dance. And though everyone runs into high motions, and extravagant postures, they cease not continually to intermix some word. Most of their masks are hideous and represent either monstrous Beasts or kinds of Devils. The Show which they call Lacone is a poem intermix with Epic and Dramatic, which lasts three days, from eight in the morning till seven at night. They are histories in verse, serious, and sung by several actors always present, and which do only sing reciprocally.... The Rabam is a double dance of men and women, which is not martial, but gallant ... they can perform it without much tyring themselves, because their way of dancing is a simple march round, very slow, and without any high motion; but with a great many slow contortions of the body and arms.
Of the attires of SiameseKhon dancers, La Loubère recorded that: "[T]hose that dance in Rabam, and Cone, have gilded high and pointed. It was introduced by Persian Lombok hat in King Naraya reign. but which hang down at the sides below their ears, which are adorned with counterfeit stones, and with two pendants of gilded wood."[67]: 49
La Loubère also observed the existence ofmuay Thai andmuay Lao, noting that they looked similar (i.e., using both fists and elbows to fight), but the hand-wrapping techniques were different.[67]: 49
The accomplishment and influence of Thai art and culture, developed during the Ayutthaya Period, on neighboring countries was evident in the observation of CaptainJames Low a British scholar of Southeast Asia, during the early Rattanakosin Era:
The Siamese have attained to a considerable degree of perfection in dramatic exhibitions — and are in this respect envied by their neighbours the Burmans, Laos, and Cambojans who all employ Siamese actors when they can be got.[68]
In 1768–81, Thai dance was greatly revived by KingTaksin and Thais.[69]: 28 There was evidence that there are still performances ofLakhon Nai andLakhon Nok, both actors and actresses, in the capital and outside major cities, such asNakhon Ratchasima,Chiang Mai, Fang or Sawangkhaburi (nowUtaradit), and Phitsanulok duringTaksin's reunification of Siam. There also were collections of dramatic compositions composed during the Ayutthaya period—more than 10 stories.[69]: 29
In 1769, in the early period after the establishment ofThonburi Kingdom, King Taksin gathered many scattered actors and actresses. There were actors fromNakhon Si Thammarat sent by the governor ofPattani to King Taksin, and a Thai dance performance was organized at that time on the occasion of the consecration of the Buddha's relics atWat Phra Mahathat in Nakhon Si Thammarat.[70] When King Taksin led his army to siege the assembly of Chao Phra Fang,[71] he organized a Thai dance performance in Fang and Phitsanulok to celebrate the cities after his victory.[69]: 28
Prince Damrong Rajanubhap stated that the actors and actresses of Nakhon Si Thammarat were members of theLakhon Nai who had fled from Ayutthaya.[72]
Throughout the reign of King Taksin, he composed five additional episodes (Four Folding-book manuscripts in total)[73] of the Thai version,Ramakien. He ordered the establishment of several royal drama theaters for training. There were performances of theKhon,Ramakien,Inao, and royal drama competitions in theEmerald Buddha celebration in 1782 near the end of the reign.[74]
Meanwhile, at the Burmese royal court, the royal family members of the Ayutthaya court and Thais who were taken to Burma brought the Thai dance to the Burmese court, resulting in Burmese dance being greatly influenced by the Ayutthaya. However, it was an opportunity to be able to revive Thai dance during the Thonburi period until the Rattanakosin period because Thai dance can be traced back to the Thai-Burmese multiculturalism in another way.[69]: 29–30
Lakhon features a wider range of stories thanKhon, includingfolk tales andJataka stories. Dancers are usually female who play both male and female roles and perform as a group rather than representing individual characters.Lakhon draws inspiration primarily from theRamakien (Thai adaptation of Hindu epicRamayana). Percussion instruments andpiphat, a type of woodwind, accompany the dance.[75]Thai literature anddrama draw great inspiration fromIndian arts andlegends.
Khon is the most stylized form of Thai dance. It is performed by troupes of non-speaking dancers, the story being told by achorus at the side of thestage.Choreography follows traditional models rather than attempting to innovate. MostKhon performances feature episodes from theRamakien.Costumes are dictated by tradition, withangels, both good and bad, wearing coloredmasks.
Fon (Thai:ฟ้อน;RTGS: fon) is a form of folk dance accompanied by the folk music of the region. The firstfon originated in the northern region of Thailand. It was designed and taught by Chao Dararasami ofChiang Mai. Since then, a variety offon came into practice, featuring the music and style of each province, such as thefon lep (Thai:ฟ้อนเล็บ;RTGS: fon lep) fingernail dance from Chiang Mai and thefon ngiew fromChiang Rai, which was influenced byBurmese music and costume.[citation needed]
Fon is divided into three types:
The two golden periods ofBurmese literature were the direct consequences of the Thai literary influence. The first transmission happened during the two-decade period (1564–83), in which theToungoo Dynasty briefly managed to subjectSiam as its vassal state. This conquest incorporated many Thai elements into Burmese literature. the most evident ones were theyadu oryatu (ရာတု), an emotional and philosophic verse and theyagan (ရာကန်) genre. The next transmission of Thai literary influence to Burma happened in the aftermath of the fall of Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1767. After the second conquest ofAyutthaya (Thailand), many Siamese royal dancers and poets were brought back to the court ofKonbaung.Ramakien, the Thai version ofRamayana (ရာမယန), was introduced and was adapted in Burmese where it is now calledYama Zatdaw. Burmese literature during this period was therefore modelled after theRamayana, and dramatic plays were patronised by the Burmese court.[76]
| Interviews given by HRH PrincessNorodom Buppha Devi and Em Theay regarding the Cambodian Royal Dances and influence from the Siamese style | |
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 By Norodom Buppha Devi | |
| By Em Theay |
The earliest mention of Cambodian classical dance appeared in the 7th century CE in a Sanskrit inscription.[78] After the Siamese herded thousands of people fromAngkor to theAyutthaya Kingdom in 1421, it resulted in a cultural fusion between these two kingdoms.[79][80][81] It's believed by modern Thais that the Cambodian Royal Ballet is derived Thai ballet, whereas Cambodians believe the Cambodian ballet is derived from Angkorean dance as it was prior to the Siamese carrying the dancers off to Ayutthaya.[79][82][83][84] Khmer court dance reached Ayutthaya in the 1400s and then a modified version returned to Cambodia in the 19th century.[85]
Meanwhile, after the second fall of Ayutthaya in theBurmese–Siamese War (1765–1767), most of the royal court dances of the Ayutthaya period were completely lost. From the Thonburi and Rattanakosin eras, a lot of Siamese verses and dramatic compositions were reproduced and recomposed again in the period of KingTaksin and KingRama I.[86]
In Theatre In Southeast Asia (1967),James R.Brandon, a specialist and professor of Asian Theatre, wrote:
" It is popular to claim that the dance style of Angkor's apsaras of the twelfth century is perfectly preserved in the Royal Cambodian Ballet dance style. Unfortunately, this is romantic nonsense. A world of difference separates the elaborately costumed, chaste, and refined Cambodian dancers of today from the bare-breasted, hip-swinging beauties of Angkor. Between the thirteenth and the nineteenth centuries, the Thai developed Khmer dance and music in distinctive new directions. Present-day Cambodian dance-drama is virtually a copy of this Thai creation from earlier Khmer forms. Up until World War II, the Royal Cambodian Ballet performed its classic repertory in the Thai language; only since the war have the Thai play scripts been translated into Cambodian"[23]
Professor of Dance Katie Stahl-Kovell, Ph.D, criticizes this take, and disagrees with Brandon's methods and conclusions, saying in 2015 that, “Brandon’s narrativeorientalizes Khmers, ignores Khmer oral accounts of court dance, and privileges concrete evidence that is difficult to find when studying an ephemeral artform such asdance.” Stahl-Kovell goes on to say “though Brandon may wish it,” the impermanence of dance means it cannot “effectively be documented.” She concludes:
Brandon’s attempt to fully document hard evidence of dance is a ubiquitously Western approach to dance and is emblematic of the pitfalls of 1960s anthropology.[87]
"Poses,” “gestures,” and “movements” present in modern Thai (and Cambodian) dance bear likeness to depictions in ancient Khmer art, underscoring an enduring Khmer impact on Thai dance. Even the Thai words for dance (ระบำ or ‘rabam,’ and รำ or ‘ram’) come fromOld Khmer.[88][89] Art historian, journalist, and author Denise Heywood puts it:
“It is said that Siamese dancersemulated Khmer movements and Khmer dancers adopted Siamese costumes.”[90]
Cambodia's KingAng Duong, who came to the throne in 1841, is known to had taken refuge in the court ofSiam. He decided to set a new standardization forhis own court dance, inspired by the dance he had seen in Thailand. He also adapted the costumes of Siamese models.[91]
Siam was not exceptional in this regard:
"Cravath notes that the king returned with musicians after his 1872 visit toManila; that same year, a visit toSingapore saw his return with ‘Malayan coachmen’ [who resided] in Phnom Penh under his protection; the daughter of one of these eventually became a leading dancer in the royal troupe and subsequently one of the most respected teachers of princess roles.' All these artists were given access to Khmer classical dance lessons, additionally performing dances and songs from their own traditions for the entertainment of the king.”[92]
King Ang Duong's changes may have been an effort to update the dance and make it more palatable to French sensibilities:
First off, he separated male and female dancers into separate troupes and commanded that they each be able to enact dances and dramas without depending on each other. This has resulted in the modern female tradition we associate with the royal court today and the modern all‑male masked tradition of khaol, which is associated with villages and only performs excerpts of the Reamker. Secondly, he covered the half‑clad bodies of the dancers with heavy costumes. This decision reflected an interaction with 'modern' French values as well as the conservative ideas of the Thammayut branch ofTheravada Buddhism, which was developed by both Thai and Khmer monks inBangkok.”[93]
In 1868–1910, Aunt Chawiwat, also known as PrincessChawiwat Pramoj, daughter of Siamese Prince Vorachak Tharanubhab, took the Siamese Royal dance and Siamese troupe ofChao Chorm Manda Ampa [th] [a high-ranking Siamese court lady], all accessories, along with the SiamesePiphat ensemble, to the court of theNorodom Palace in the Fifth Reign of KingRama V.[94][95] Contemporary accounts attest that, throughout the reign of KingNorodom of Cambodia (r. 1860–1904), the Cambodian royal dance troupe almost entirely consisted of Siamese performers, numbering approximately 500 dancers and instructors. At the time of Norodom's demise (or during the reign ofSisowath), more than 300 Siamese dancers were resident in the Royal Palace atPhnom Penh. Of particular note, the supervision and codification of the troupe's ceremonial protocols were entrusted solely to a single Siamese woman.[96]: 152
In Cambodian history—Le Royaume du Cambodge (1883) by Jean MOURA (1827–85), a French administrator, it is mentioned that Siamese females provided recruits of Siamese dancers to the ballet corps of King Norodon's palace:
Les femmes siamoises sont charmantes; elles sont grandes généralement et bien faites; elles fournissent des recrues appréciées au corps de ballet du palais du roi Norodon, et ce sont des Siamois qui, moyennant finances, se chargent de ce recrutement en allant, à leurs risques et périls, faire des chargements de filles à Bangkok.[97]
(Translation): The Siamese women were generally attractive, tall, and beautiful. They assisted in recruiting young Siamese female dancers for the ballet troupe to perform in the palace of King Norodom, and the Siamese took upon themselves the responsibility of taking the errand at their own risk to bring the shipload of dancers back to Bangkok with a charge.
— Jean MOURA (1883).
George Groslier (1887–1945), a French civil servant who studied Cambodia's traditional dance art and had access to royal dancers and teachers connected to the kingSisowath’s court, wrote:
Les danseuses cambodgiennes étaient si bien parties de leur malheureux pays que les derniers rois khmers, jusqu’à Norodom, avaient des troupes presque en totalité siamoises. Tous les professeurs des cinq cents "lokhon" de Norodom étaient siamoises. A sa mort, il y avait plus de trois cents actrices thaï au palais de Phnom Penh. De nos jours encore, l’ensemble des professeurs, moins deux, est siamois!...[98]
(Translation): The Cambodian dancers were so well out of their unfortunate country (after the sack of Angkor) that the last Khmer kings, up to Norodom, had almost entirely Siamese troupes. All the teachers of the five hundred 'lokhon' of Norodom were Siamese. At his death, there were more than three hundred Thai actresses in the palace of Phnom Penh. Even today (under the reign of H. M. Sisowath) all the teachers, minus two, are Siamese! ….[99][100]
— George Groslier (1913).
Groslier maintained that thedance itself and "gestures" are Khmer in origin, "preserved" by the Siamese:
Depuis la ruine d’Angkor,depuis que les esclaves sont les maîtres,depuis que tout ce qui était puissance, orgueil n’est plus rien, les Siamois vainqueurs ont conservé, dépositaires respectueux et gardiens adorateurs, les fragiles «lokhon ». Mais si le même rituel, les mêmes gestes demeurent,— parce qu’ils sont immortels, — les costumes subirent l’influence des nouveaux maîtres.[101]
(Translation) Since the ruin of Angkor, since slaves became masters, since all that was power and pride became nothing, the victorious Siamese have preserved, as respectful custodians and adoring guardians, the fragile "lokhon." But while the same rituals and gestures remain,— because they are immortal — the costumes have been influenced by the new masters.[101]
— George Groslier (1913)
Author and ballet practitioner Prumsodun Ok wrote:
"Scholars such as Paul Cravath believe the Churning of the Ocean of Milk, as carved onto the walls ofAngkor Wat, is an actual depiction of khaol, or male masked dance. He believes the performance was enacted during coronation ceremonies to assert the king’s role as the central force presiding over the kingdom and the cosmos it represented, whose harmonious control of these forces produced the apsara, celestial dancers, themselves. Cravath notes that Thai dance experts believe this ritual was introduced to Thailand by way ofKhmer artists, where it was known as the len dukdamban and performed as late as the reign of King Chulalongkorn (1868 – 1911).”[102]
A French historian working forPrince of Songkla University (Thailand) in the early 1900s noted:
From the close of the eighteenth century and through the nineteenth century, a number of Khmer pages, classical women dancers, and musicians studied with Thai Ajarn (masters or teachers) in Cambodia. The presence of these Thai elite in Cambodia contributed to the development of strong Thai cultural influence among the Khmer upper classes. Moreover, some members of the Khmer royal family went to the Thai court and developed close relations with well-educated Thai nobility, as well as several court poets. Such cultural links were so powerful that, in some fields, one might use the termSiamization in referring to the processes of cultural absorption at the Khmer court at that time.[103]
In 1958, KingNorodom Sihanouk shared the following withMalcolm MacDonald:
“King Sihanouk propounded to me a theory about the dancers costumes. He told me that in the court of the ancient Khmer empire dancers were lightly clad, like the half-naked apsaras.…Then the dancers were forgotten when the court fled Angkor, in their private quarters, so they fell in the hands of the Thais who took them with other splendid booty to their own capital of Ayuthia…The Thais’ idea of costume, however, was different from that of the Khmers. They were people originating from the cold north in Yunnan, and were used to wear a lot of clothes.”[104]
In 1968, Frederick P. Munson (et al.) wrote of theRoyal Ballet of Cambodia:
"The costumes and crowns used by the Cambodian palace dancers show an unmistakable Thai influence, but there is one notable exception. Every item of jewelry worn by the dancers is authentic. The bracelets and anklets are gold studded with precious stones, and the crowns for male roles are of beaten gold and weigh as much as 5 pounds. When not in use the costumes and jewelry are kept in a museum in the palace."[79]
Folk dance forms include dance theater forms likelikay, numerous regional dances (ram), the ritual danceram muay, and homage to the teacher,wai khru. Bothram muay andwai khru take place before all traditionalmuay Thai matches. Thewai is also an annual ceremony performed by Thai classical dance groups to honor their artistic ancestors.[citation needed]
For example, King Ang Duong (1796–1859) had taken refuge in the court of Thailand (then Siam). It is said that he set new standards for his court dance, since he was inspired by the dances he had seen in Thailand. He even remodelled the dance costume after Thai models.
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