| Dakota | |
|---|---|
| Dakota Iapi, Dakhód'iapi, Dakȟótiyapi | |
| Pronunciation | [daˈkʰodʔiapi],[daˈqˣotijapi] |
| Native to | United States,Canada |
| Region | PrimarilyNorth Dakota andSouth Dakota, but also northernNebraska, southernMinnesota; NorthernMontana; southernManitoba, southernSaskatchewan |
| Ethnicity |
|
Native speakers | 290 (2016)[1] |
Siouan
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 | dak |
| ISO 639-3 | dak |
| Glottolog | dako1258 |
 Dakota is classified as Definitely Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger. | |
| This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. | |
| Dakota | |
|---|---|
| People | Dakȟóta Oyáte |
| Language | Dakȟótiyapi |
| Country | Dakȟóta Makóce,Očhéthi Šakówiŋ |
TheDakota language (Dakota:Dakhód'iapi orDakȟótiyapi), also referred to asDakhóta, is aSiouan language spoken by theDakota people of theOčhéthi Šakówiŋ, commonly known in English as the Sioux. Dakota is closely related to and mutually intelligible with theLakota language.
Dakota, similar to many Native American languages, is a mainlypolysynthetic language, meaning that different morphemes in the form of affixes can be combined to form a single word. Nouns in Dakota can be broken down into two classes, primitive and derivative. Primitive nouns are nouns whose origin cannot be deduced from any other word (for examplemakhá or earth,phéta or fire, andaté or father), while derivative nouns are nouns that are formed in various ways from words of other grammatical categories. Primitive nouns stand on their own and are separate from other words. Derivative nouns, on the other hand, are formed by the addition of affixes to words in other grammatical categories.
Verbs in Dakota can appropriate, throughagglutination and synthesis, many of thepronominal,prepositional, andadverbial ormodal affixes of the language. There are many verbal roots, all of which are only used once certain causative prefixes are added, formingparticiples. LikeSpanish orFrench, Dakota verbs also have threepersons, the first, the second, and the third. Person is indicated through the presence (first and second person) or lack (third person) of personal pronoun affixes. There are two forms of tense in the language, theaorist (as verbs, adjectives, and other nouns,[2] sometimes called the indefinite) and thefuture. In order to express the future tense, the suffixeskta orkte are placed after the verb, much in contrast to expressing the aorist tense, which requires no marking, but is instead derived from the context of what is being said.[2]
Source:[3]
Abstractbenefactive; (wa- + -kíči-) An action that is for someone else's benefit and is further generalized as a concept.
Abstractcausative; (wa- + -yA) An action that causes something to change state or action and is generalized as a concept.
Abstractintransitive; (wa-) Does not specify an object and is further generalized as a concept.
Abstractpossessive; (wa- + -ki; & wa- + hd-) Specifies that the action is upon one’s own, and is further generalized as a concept.
Abstracttransitive; (wa-) Requires an object, and is further generalized as a concept.
Auxiliary; Follows an unconjugated verb and modifies it.
Benefactive; Dative 2; (-kíči-) An action that is for someone else’s benefit or on their behalf.
Causative; (-ye, -ya & -yaŋ) An action that causes something or someone to change state or action.
Dative 1; (-ki- & -khi-) An action that indicates an object or recipient.
Ditransitive; An action that requires two objects, whether the actor and another or two items.
Intransitive; An action that doesn’t need an object.
Possessive; (-ki-, & -hd-) An action that targets one's own.
Reciprocal; (-kičhi- +/- -pi) An action between two parties that is done in kind to one another.
Reflexive; (-ič’i- & -ihd-) An action done to or for one's self.
Stative; A verb describing a state of being.
Transitive; An action that requires an object or subject.
In the Dakota language, affixes are used to change the meaning of words by attaching to the root word. Affixes can be added to both nouns and verbs, and they come in the form of prefixes and suffixes.
Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word, infixes inside of the word, and suffixes are added to the end of a word. For example, the verbwóyakA means "to tell a story" in Dakota. By adding the infixed "-ki-", the word becomeswókiyakA, which means "to tell someone". On the other hand, by adding the suffix "-pi," the word becomes "wóyakapi", which can mean "a story, a narrative" or "they are all telling stories".
Dakota being anagglutinative language means that affixes are added to the root word without changing the form of the root word. This can result in long, complex words that can convey a lot of information in a single word. For example, the Dakota wordakáȟpekičičhiyA, means "to cover up something for one; to pass by a matter, forgive, or cancel". This word is made up of the root wordkaȟpÁ (meaning "to cover, knock down or take something down"), the suffix -kičičhiyA meaning "to or for, (causative)", and the prefixa- meaning "upon"AkáȟpA +-kiči +-čhiyA =Akáȟpekičičhiye.
Overall, affixes in the Dakota language play an important role in creating new words and adding nuances to the meaning of existing words. They allow speakers to express complex ideas in a concise and efficient manner.
Infixoids are morphemes that can occur either asinfixes,circumfixes, ortransfixes depending on the word they are attached to. In the case of Dakota language, some affixes can function as both a prefix and an infix, depending on the specific instance of the word.
For example, the Dakota verb "dá" means "to ask for something". If you want to say "I ask for something from you", you add the affixeski- to indicate dative 1 case (to someone), andčhi- 1s-2s (I to you) resulting in "čhičída". However, the verbeyÁ "to say something" uses the same affix in an infixed position, so if you want to say "she says to you", you would add the same affixki- as an infix instead, withni-2sT resulting in "eníčiye" (ni- +ki- +eyÁ).
Similarly, the affix-uŋ- which can mean "you and I" (1d), and is shared with-uŋ-...-pi "we all, us all" (1p), can be found in both positions of prefix and infix, depending on the verb in use. The verbiyáyA "to leave or pass by" in 1sibdábde (I leave), while in 1duŋkíyaye (you and I leave). The same affix in the verbmáni "to walk" is infixed as 1dmaúŋni.
This phenomenon of affixes functioning as both prefixes and infixes in Dakota language is an example of the complex morphological structure of the language, and it requires careful attention to the specific context and meaning of the word being used.
Abstract and indefinite object markers
A duplifix is a morpheme that is amorphological process in which the root or part of aword (or even the whole word) is repeated exactly or with a slight change. Unlike other types of affixes, duplifixes can emphasize or intensify the meaning of the word rather than change its grammatical function, or can be used to indicate plurality or repetition, or to modify adjectives or verbs for emphasis. This is commonly called reduplication. Examples are as such;waštéšte "good things",p’op’ó "it is very foggy", andšigšíčA "bad things, ugly things"
In order to show possession in Dakota, a possessive pronoun may be prefixed whichever noun is being possessed. Two forms of possessive nouns occur, the natural class and the artificial or alienable class. Natural class pronouns express possession that cannot be alienated, and when prefixed to a noun, signifies the different parts of one's self. For example, the possessive natural article pronounmi-, which means "my," can be added to nouns such as "eye," inmiíšta, or "words," inmióie; for inalienable objects such as one's body or intellectual property, and in some cases for possessive form of relative terms such as "my little brother,"misúŋ, or "my daughter,"mičhúŋkši. (However most relative terms are in their base form possessive; or use the causative suffix-yA.) Meanwhile, artificial possessive pronouns are used to signify property and possessions that can be transferred or traded. For example, the artificial pronountha-, which may becomethi-, andtho-, is equivalent to the verbtháwa, "his or hers," can be prefixed onto nouns such as "bow," inthinázipe, and "friend," inthakhódaku.[2]
Dakota is mainly a subject-object-verb (SOV) language, where nouns, whether they are the subject or object, always come before the verb. And when two nouns are used in the same clause, where one is the subject and the other is the object, the subject is most usually placed first. Verbs are also usually placed after adjectives that are used to qualify either the subject or the object and adverbs that qualify the verb. When additional words are used within a clause that are not either nouns or verbs, the nouns, both subject and object, are always placed at the beginning of the clause.[2]
Dakota has two major dialects with two sub-dialects each:
The two dialects differ phonologically, grammatically, and to a large extent, also lexically. They are mutually intelligible to a high extent, although Western Dakota appears lexically closer to theLakota language with which it has high mutual intelligibility.
For a comparative table of the various writing systems conceived over time for the Dakota languages, cf. the specific section of the articleSioux language.
Dakota has five oral vowels,/aeiou/, and three nasal vowels,/ãĩũ/.
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| high | oral | i | u | |
| nasal | ĩ | ũ | ||
| mid | e | o | ||
| low | oral | a | ||
| nasal | ã | |||
| Labial (-ized) | Dental/ Alveolar | Palatal (-ized) | Velar/ Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m[m] | n[n] | ||||
| Stop | aspirated | ph[pʰ] pȟ [pˣ] | th[tʰ] tȟ [tˣ] | čh[tʃʰ] | kh[kʰ] kȟ [kˣ] | |
| voiceless | p[p] | t[t] | č[tʃ] | k[k] | ’[ʔ] | |
| ejective | pʼ[pʼ] | tʼ[tʼ] | čʼ[tʃʼ] | kʼ[kʼ] | ||
| voiced | b[b] | d[d] | g[ɡ] | |||
| Fricative | voiceless | s[s] | š[ʃ] | ȟ[χ] | h[h] | |
| ejective | sʼ[sʼ] | šʼ[ʃʼ] | ȟʼ[χʼ] | |||
| voiced | z[z] | ž[ʒ] | ǧ[ʁ] | |||
| Approximant | w[w] | y[j] | ||||
In respect to phonology, Eastern and Western Dakota differ particularly in consonant clusters. The table below gives the possible consonant clusters and shows the differences between the dialects:
| Dakota consonant clusters | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Santee Sisseton | Yanktonai | Yankton | ||||||||
| m | b | ȟ | p | s | š | t | h/k/g | |||
| m | ȟm | sm | hm | km | gm | |||||
| n | mn | ȟn | sn | šn | hn | kn | gn | |||
| b | ȟb | sb | šb | hb | kb | gb | ||||
| d | bd | ȟd | sd | šd | hd | kd | gd | |||
| p | ȟp | sp | šp | kp | ||||||
| t | ȟt | pt | st | št | kt | |||||
| č | ȟč | pč | sč | kč | ||||||
| k | sk | šk | tk | |||||||
| s | ps | ks | ||||||||
| š | pš | kš | ||||||||
The two dialects also differ in the diminutive suffix (-daŋ, -da in Santee, and-na in Yankton-Yanktonai and in Sisseton) and in a number of other phonetic issues that are harder to categorize. The following table gives examples of words that differ in their phonology.
| Eastern Dakota | Western Dakota | gloss | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Santee | Sisseton | Yanktonai | Yankton | |
| hokšídaŋ / hokšída | hokšína | hokšína | boy | |
| nína | nína | nína / dína[6] | very | |
| hdÁ | kdÁ | gdÁ | to go back[7] | |
| hbéza | kbéza | gbéza | ridged | |
| hnayÁŋ | knayÁŋ | gnayÁŋ | to deceive | |
| hmúŋkA | kmúŋkA | gmúŋkA | to trap | |
| ahdéškadaŋ | ahdéškana | akdéškana | agdéškana | lizard |
There are also numerous lexical differences between the two Dakota dialects as well as between the sub-dialects. Yankton-Yanktonai is in fact lexically closer to the Lakota language than it is to Santee-Sisseton. The following table gives some examples:
| English gloss | Santee-Sisseton | Yankton-Yanktonai | Lakota | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Northern Lakota | Southern Lakota | |||
| child | šičéča / wakháŋheža | wakȟáŋyeža | wakȟáŋyeža | |
| knee | hupháhu | čhaŋkpé | čhaŋkpé | |
| knife | isáŋ / mína | mína | míla | |
| kidneys | phakšíŋ | ažúŋtka | ažúŋtka | |
| hat | wapháha | wapȟóštaŋ | wapȟóštaŋ | |
| still | hináȟče | naháŋȟčiŋ | naháŋȟčiŋ | |
| man | wičhášta | wičháša | wičháša | |
| hungry | wótehda | dočhíŋ | ločhíŋ | |
| morning | haȟ'áŋna | híŋhaŋna | híŋhaŋna | híŋhaŋni |
| to shave | kasáŋ | kasáŋ | kasáŋ | glak'óǧa |
Yankton-Yanktonai has the same threeablaut grades as Lakota (a, e, iŋ), while in Santee-Sisseton there are only two (a, e). This significantly impacts word forms, especially in fast speech and it is another reason why Yankton-Yanktonai has better mutual intelligibility with Lakota than with Santee-Sisseton.
Some examples:
| English gloss | to go[7] | I shall go | to go back[7] | he/she/it will go back |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| santee-sisseton | yÁ | bdé kte | hdÁ | hdé kte |
| yankton-yanktonai | yÁ | mníŋ kte | kdÁ/gdÁ | kníŋ/gníŋ kte |
| lakota | yÁ | mníŋ kte | glÁ | gníŋ kte |
There are other grammatical differences between the dialects.
TheUniversity of Minnesota was the first American University to establish a Dakota language class in their American Indian studies department. In 1966 a small group petitioned the University's administration to "establish links between the University and Minnesota's eleven federally-recognized tribes to develop recruitment and retention efforts for American Indian students, and to create courses on issues of importance to American Indian communities".[8] In 2022, University of Minnesota's American Indian Studies Department and the Dakota Language Program collaborated to develop the Dakota Language House Living Learning Community in hopes of it becoming a full-immersion Dakota program. It is an opportunity for students to live with others who are speaking, or learning to speak, Dakota. Dakota language instructor Šišóka Dúta (Sisithunwan-Wahpethunwan Dakhota) noted, "To speak the language is to literally breathe life into the language because you're using the air to speak language, and so, in a metaphorical but in the literal way. So by speaking the language, we're breathing life into it and that's actually a phrase in our language".[9] The University's classes currently include classes on teaching Dakota, alongside Dakota Linguistics, for years one through four.[8] In 2023, the University introduced a Dakota language major program.[10]
In 1979, theSisseton Wahpeton Oyate college was established. They maintain a Dakota studies program, with Dakota language specialist trainings.[11] The college has a dictionary and other materials available on their website, created through grants at their Kaksiza Caŋhdeṡka Center.[12] These books and materials are hand crafted with the hard work and dedication of elder speakers of the Lake Traverse reservation community, with regular weekly meetings to create curriculum or work with learners; President Azure at the time said, "Many of our graduates are now out in the community and k-12 schools teaching what they learned and how they learned it, and are continuing to succeed in language revitalization".[12] They also have an online Dakota/English dictionary.[13] The University of Minnesota and the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate College are working together to create the Dakota Language Audio Journal, which will be the first publicly available language journal, featuring recordings of conversations and stories.[14]
In 2017, theShakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community funded a Dakota language training program called Voices of Our Ancestors, which provided four tribal communities with the resources to immerse 20 students in 40 hours a week of language.[15] The tribal colleges which participated were Cankdeska Cikana Community College in North Dakota, Fort Peck Community College in Montana, the Nebraska Indian Community College Santee campus and the Sisseton Wahpeton College in South Dakota.[15] The Fort Peck Culture Department create the Yanktonai Dakota Vocab Builder in the same year.[16]
In 2018, theLower Sioux Indian Community launched their Dakota immersionHead Start[17][18] and also maintains online language classes to support the learning of their children and their families.[19] The Dakota Wicohan program on Lower Sioux works with older youth to immerse them in the language and culture.[18] Dakota Wicohan offers curriculum on Dakota values, language and customs through their website.[20]
In North Dakota, there are state and tribal colleges teaching Dakota. TheUniversity of North Dakota has an Indigenous Language Education program up through aBachelor of Science degree.[21]Sitting Bull College, which serves theStanding Rock Indian Reservation maintains a dual Dakota/Lakota program, offering anAssociate of Science degree in Dakhótiyapi.[22] TheCankdeska Cikana Community College on the Spirit Lake reservation offers a Dakota Language Certification.[23]
A Dakota-English Dictionary byStephen Return Riggs is a historic resource for referencing dialect and historic documents.[24] The accuracy of the work is disputed, as Riggs left provisions in the English copy untranslated in the Dakota version and sometimes revised the meaning of Dakota words to fit a Eurocentric viewpoint.[25]Dakota Prisoner of War Letters is a great historic resource as it highlights fluently written Dakota language letters from the time of the Camp Kearney prison camp located in Davenport, Iowa, in 1863–1866.[26] These letters are to relatives back home or to their closest representative they could find.[26] It is the work of Dr. Clifford Canku as well as Michael Simon.[26]
TheDakhóta Iápi Okhódakičhiye worked with Dakota language speakers, teachers, and linguists to create theirSpeak Dakota! textbooks, which are a fully illustrated series that is linguistically and pedagogically consistent. In 2023, the group released a free Dakota language app called,Dakhód Iápi Wičhóie Wówapi, containing more than 28,000 words and 40,000 audio files to aid in pronunciation.[27]
Remember This! Dakota Decolonization and the Eli Taylor Narratives takes a unique approach to Indigenous history by centering Dakota language and oral tradition as crucial components of the decolonization framework.[28] This is different from other works in the field, as it solely relies on Indigenous oral tradition as primary sources and gives prominence to Dakota language in the text.
Beginning Dakota - Tokaheya Dakota Iapi Kin by Nicolette Knudson, Jody Snow, and Clifford Canku is an online lesson portal byMinnesota Historical Society.[29] Wíyouŋkihipi Productions has free learning resources for Dakota on their website that are centered around child and family learning, such as holidays and other activities like coloring books.[30][31] Further, the director of Wíyouŋkihipi Productions has more resources on their personal artist site including Dakota land maps with audio pronunciations.[32] Another mapping project called the Makxoche Washte: The Beautiful Country, is a Dakota and Lakota language map which is arguably the most extensive map in all of Dakota history and utilizes Google Maps.[33]
