A copper mine in Cyprus. In antiquity, Cyprus was a major source of copper.
The earliest attested reference toCyprus is the 15th century BCMycenaean Greek𐀓𐀠𐀪𐀍,ku-pi-ri-jo,[31] meaning "Cypriot" (Greek:Κύπριος), written inLinear B syllabic script.[32]The classical Greek form of the name isΚύπρος (Kýpros).
The etymology of the name is unknown.Suggestions include:
the Greek name of thehenna tree (Lawsonia alba), κύπρος (kýpros)
anEteocypriot word for copper. It has been suggested, for example, that it has roots in theSumerian word for copper (zubar) or forbronze (kubar), from the large deposits of copper ore found on the island.[33]
Through overseas trade, the island has given its name to theClassical Latin word for copper through the phraseaes Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened toCuprum.[33][34]
The standarddemonym relating to Cyprus or its people or culture isCypriot. The termsCypriote andCyprian (latera personal name) are also used, though less frequently.
The state's official name inGreek literally translates to "Cypriot Republic" in English, but this translation is not used officially; "Republic of Cyprus" is used instead.
Hunter-gatherers first arrived on Cyprus around 13–12,000 years ago (11,000 to 10,000 BC), based on dating of sites likeAetokremnos on the south coast and the inland site of Vretsia Roudias.[35] The arrival of the first humans coincides with the extinction of the 75 cm (2.46 ft) highCypriot pygmy hippopotamus and 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tallCyprus dwarf elephant, the only large mammals native to the island.[36]Neolithic farming communities emerged on the island by around 10,500 years ago (8500 BC).[37]
Remains of an eight-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separateNeolithic site in Cyprus.[38] The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old (7500 BC), predatingancient Egyptian civilisation and pushing back theearliest known feline-human association significantly.[39] The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village ofKhirokitia is a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site, dating to approximately 6800 BC.[40]
During the LateBronze Age, from around 1650 BC Cyprus (identified in whole or part asAlashiya in contemporary texts) became more connected to the wider Mediterranean world driven by the trade incopper extracted from the Troodos Mountains, which stimulated the development of urbanised settlements across the island, with records suggesting that Cyprus at this time was ruled by "kings" who corresponded with the leaders of other Mediterranean states (like thepharaohs of theNew Kingdom of Egypt, as documented in theAmarna letters).[41] The first recorded name of a Cypriot king isKushmeshusha, as appears on letters sent toUgarit in the 13th century BC.[42]
At the end of the Bronze Age, the island experienced two waves of Greek settlement.[43] The first wave consisted ofMycenaean Greek traders, who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC.[44][45][46] A major wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place following theLate Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece from 1100 to 1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period.[46][47] Cyprus occupies an important role inGreek mythology, being the birthplace ofAphrodite andAdonis, and home toKing Cinyras,Teucer andPygmalion.[48] Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence atKition, which was underTyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC.[49] SomePhoenician merchants who were believed to come fromTyrecolonised the area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC, the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians.
Zeus Keraunios, 500–480 BC, Nicosia museum
Cyprus is at a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean.[50][51][52] It was ruled by theNeo-Assyrian Empire for a century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventuallyAchaemenid rule in 545 BC.[46] The Cypriots, led byOnesilus, king of Salamis, joined their fellow Greeks in theIonian cities during the unsuccessfulIonian Revolt in 499 BC against the Achaemenids. The revolt was suppressed, but Cyprus managed to maintain a high degree of autonomy and remained inclined towards the Greek world.[46] During the whole period of the Persian rule, there is a continuity in the reign of the Cypriot kings and during their rebellions they were crushed by Persian rulers from Asia Minor, which is an indication that the Cypriots were ruling the island with directly regulated relations with the Great King and there was not a Persiansatrap.[53] The Kingdoms of Cyprus enjoyed special privileges and a semi-autonomous status, but they were still considered vassal subjects of the Great King.[53]
TheWalls of Nicosia were built by the Venetians to defend the city in case of an Ottoman attack.Kyrenia Castle was originally built by the Byzantines and enlarged by the Venetians.
When theRoman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western parts in 286, Cyprus became part of the East Roman Empire (also called theByzantine Empire), and would remain so for some 900 years. Under Byzantine rule, the Greek orientation that had been prominent since antiquity developed the strong Hellenistic-Christian character that continues to be a hallmark of the Greek Cypriot community.[55]
Beginning in 649, Cyprus endured repeated attacks and raids launched byUmayyad Caliphate. Many were quick raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were killed and great wealth carried off or destroyed.[55] The city ofSalamis was destroyed and never rebuilt.[46] Byzantine control remained stronger in the northern coast, the Arabs exerted more influence in the south. In 688, EmperorJustinian II and CaliphAbd al-Malik signed a treaty whereby Cyprus would be paying an equal amount of tribute to the Caliphate and tax to the Empire, but would remain politically neutral to both while being retained as a province administered by the Empire. There are no Byzantine churches which survive from this period, and the island entered a period of impoverishment.[56] Full Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when EmperorNikephoros II Phokas scored decisive victories on land and sea.[46]
In 1156Raynald of Châtillon andThoros II of Armenia brutally sacked Cyprus over a period of three weeks, stealing so much plunder and capturing so many of the leading citizens and their families for ransom, that the island took generations to recover. Several Greek priests were mutilated and sent away to Constantinople.[57]
Following the death in 1473 ofJames II, the last Lusignan king, theRepublic of Venice assumed control of the island, while the late king's Venetian widow, QueenCatherine Cornaro, reigned as figurehead. Venice formally annexed theKingdom of Cyprus in 1489, following the abdication of Catherine.[46] The Venetians fortifiedNicosia by building theWalls of Nicosia, and used it as an important commercial hub. Throughout Venetian rule, theOttoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus. In 1539 the Ottomans destroyedLimassol and so fearing the worst, the Venetians also fortifiedFamagusta andKyrenia.[46]
Although the Lusignan French aristocracy remained the dominant social class in Cyprus throughout the medieval period, the former assumption that Greeks were treated only as serfs on the island[46] is no longer considered by academics to be accurate. It is now accepted that the medieval period saw increasing numbers of Greek Cypriots elevated to the upper classes, a growing Greekmiddle ranks,[59] and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks. This included KingJohn II of Cyprus who marriedHelena Palaiologina.[60]
Ottoman Cyprus
Cypri insvla nova descript 1573, Ioannes á Deutecum f[ecit]. Map of Cyprus newly drawn by Johannes van Deutecom, 1573.
In 1570, a full-scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. Ottoman forces capturing Cyprusmassacred many Greek and Armenian Christian inhabitants.[61] The previous Latin elite were destroyed and the first significant demographic change since antiquity took place with the formation of a Muslim community.[62] Soldiers who fought in the conquest settled on the island and Turkish peasants and craftsmen were brought to the island fromAnatolia.[63] This new community also included banished Anatolian tribes, "undesirable" persons and members of various "troublesome" Muslim sects, as well as a number of new converts on the island.[64]
Büyük Han, acaravanserai in Nicosia, is an example of the surviving Ottoman architecture in Cyprus.
The Ottomans abolished thefeudal system previously in place and applied themillet system to Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities. In a reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of theChurch of Cyprus was invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities. This status ensured that the Church of Cyprus was in a position to end theCatholic Church's constant expansion efforts on the island.[65] Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on the temperaments of the sultans and local officials.[66]
The ratio of Muslims to Christians fluctuated throughout the period of Ottoman domination. In 1777–78, 47,000 Muslims constituted a majority over the island's 37,000 Christians.[67] By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000, comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians.[68] The Muslim population included numerouscrypto-Christians,[69] including theLinobambaki, a crypto-Catholic community that arose due to religious persecution of the Catholic community by the Ottoman authorities;[69][70] this community would assimilate into the Turkish Cypriot community during British rule.[71]
As soon as theGreek War of Independence broke out in 1821, several Greek Cypriots left for Greece to join the Greek forces. In response, the Ottoman governor of Cyprus arrested and executed 486 prominent Greek Cypriots, including the Archbishop of Cyprus,Kyprianos, and four other bishops.[72] In 1828, modern Greece's first presidentIoannis Kapodistrias called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place.[73] Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none were successful. After centuries of neglect by the Ottoman Empire, the poverty of most of the people and the ever-present tax collectors fueled Greek nationalism, and by the 20th century the idea ofunion with newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots.[66]
Under Ottoman rule, numeracy, school enrolment and literacy rates were all low. They persisted some time after Ottoman rule ended, and then increased rapidly during the twentieth century.[74]
In the aftermath of theRusso-Turkish War (1877–1878) and theCongress of Berlin, Cyprus wasleased to theBritish Empire which de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, Cyprus remained ade jure Ottoman territory until 5 November 1914, together withEgypt and Sudan)[11] in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as a base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression.[46]
The island would serve Britain as a key military base for its colonial routes. By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking theSuez Canal, the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important overseas possession. Following the outbreak of theFirst World War and the decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the war on the side of theCentral Powers, on 5 November 1914 the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus and declared the OttomanKhedivate ofEgypt and Sudan aSultanate and British protectorate.[11][46]
In October 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Greece, ruled by KingConstantine I of Greece, on the condition that Greece join the war on the side of the British and went toSerbia’s assistance, in order to fulfill her Treaty obligations under theSerbo-Greek pact of May 1913.[75] It gave Greece a golden “opportunity” in achievingenosis with Cyprus.[75] Alternatively it was a“lost opportunity” when theZaimis administration declined the British proposal.[75]
The Greek Cypriot population, meanwhile, had become hopeful that the British administration would lead toenosis. The idea ofenosis was historically part of theMegali Idea, a greater political ambition of a Greek state encompassing the territories with large Greek populations in the former Ottoman Empire, including Cyprus andAsia Minor with a capital inConstantinople, and was actively pursued by theCypriot Orthodox Church, which had its members educated in Greece. These religious officials, together with Greek military officers and professionals, some of whom still pursued theMegali Idea, would later found the guerrilla organisationEOKA(Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston or National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters).[77][78] The Greek Cypriots viewed the island as historically Greek and believed that union with Greece was a natural right.[79] In the 1950s, the pursuit ofenosis became a part of the Greek national policy.[80]
A British soldier facing a crowd of Greek Cypriot demonstrators in Nicosia (1956)
Initially, the Turkish Cypriots favoured the continuation of the British rule.[81] However, they were alarmed by the Greek Cypriot calls forenosis, as they saw the union ofCrete with Greece, which led to the exodus ofCretan Turks, as a precedent to be avoided,[82][83] and they took a pro-partition stance in response to the militant activity of EOKA.[84] The Turkish Cypriots also viewed themselves as a distinct ethnic group of the island and believed in their having a separate right toself-determination from Greek Cypriots.[79] Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Turkish leaderMenderes considered Cyprus an "extension of Anatolia", rejected the partition of Cyprus along ethnic lines and favoured the annexation of the whole island to Turkey. Nationalistic slogans centred on the idea that "Cyprus is Turkish" and the ruling party declared Cyprus to be a part of the Turkish homeland that was vital to its security. Upon realising that the fact that the Turkish Cypriot population was only 20% of the islanders made annexation unfeasible, the national policy was changed to favour partition. The slogan "Partition or Death" was frequently used in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish protests starting in the late 1950s and continuing throughout the 1960s. Although after the Zürich and London conferences Turkey seemed to accept the existence of the Cypriot state and to distance itself from its policy of favouring the partition of the island, the goal of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot leaders remained that of creating an independent Turkish state in the northern part of the island.[85][86]
In January 1950, the Church of Cyprus organised areferendum under the supervision of clerics and with no Turkish Cypriot participation,[87] where 96% of the participating Greek Cypriots voted in favour ofenosis.[88][89][16]: 9 The Greeks were 80.2% of the total island's population at the time (census 1946). Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected. In 1955 the EOKA organisation was founded, seeking union with Greece through armed struggle. At the same time theTurkish Resistance Organisation (TMT), calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight.[90] British officials also tolerated the creation of the Turkish underground organisation TMT The Secretary of State for the Colonies in a letter dated 15 July 1958 had advised the Governor of Cyprus not to act against TMT despite its illegal actions so as not to harm British relations with the Turkish government.[86]
The first president of Cyprus,Makarios III (left), and the first vice-president of Cyprus,Fazıl Küçük (right)
During British rule, the future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities,Greek Cypriots, who made up 77% of the population in 1960, andTurkish Cypriots, who made up 18% of the population. From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursuedenosis, union withGreece, which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.[91][92] The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy oftaksim, the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.[93]
Ethnic map of Cyprus according to the 1960 census
Cyprus wasgranted independence in 1960, following an armed campaign spearheaded by EOKA.[15] As per theZürich and London Agreement, Cyprus officially attained independence on 16 August 1960, and at the time had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others.[94] The UK retained the twoSovereign Base Areas ofAkrotiri and Dhekelia, while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving the minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights.
However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively. The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that the rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed theAkritas plan, which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan.[95] Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President ArchbishopMakarios III called forconstitutional changes, which were rejected by Turkey[16]: 17–20 and opposed by Turkish Cypriots.[95]
Intercommunal violenceerupted on 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving the Greek Cypriot police. The violence resulted in the death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots,[96] destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy;[16]: 56–59 the nature of this event is still controversial. In some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly withdrew due to the calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration.[97] Turkish Cypriots started living inenclaves. The republic's structure was changed, unilaterally, by Makarios, and Nicosia was divided by theGreen Line, with the deployment ofUNFICYP troops.[16]: 56–59
In 1964, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus[98] in response to the continuingCypriot intercommunal violence, but this was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from the US PresidentLyndon B. Johnson on 5 June, warning that the US would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory.[99] Meanwhile, by 1964,enosis was a Greek policy and would not be abandoned; Makarios and the Greek prime ministerGeorgios Papandreou agreed thatenosis should be the ultimate aim and KingConstantine wished Cyprus "a speedy union with the mother country". Greece dispatched 10,000 troops to Cyprus to counter a possible Turkish invasion.[100]
Thecrisis of 1963–64 had brought furtherintercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves[16]: 56–59 [17] and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic.
The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions in Cyprus, and hundreds ofparatroopers were dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established; while off the Kyrenia coast, Turkish troop ships landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks and armoured vehicles.[111][112]
Three days later, when a ceasefire had been agreed,[113] Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself.[113] The junta inAthens, and then the Sampson regime in Cyprus fell from power. In Nicosia,Glafkos Clerides temporarily assumed the presidency.[113] But after the peace negotiations inGeneva, the Turkish government reinforced their Kyrenia bridgehead and started a second invasion on 14 August.[114] The invasion resulted inMorphou,Karpass, Famagusta and theMesaoria coming under Turkish control.
International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north.[115] At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in the properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during theTurkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974.[116] There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots[117] and 502 Turkish Cypriots[118] missing as a result of the fighting from 1963 to 1974.
The Republic of Cyprus hasde juresovereignty over the entire island, including itsterritorial waters andexclusive economic zone, with the exception of the Sovereign Base Areas ofAkrotiri and Dhekelia, which remain under the UK's control according to theLondon and Zürich Agreements. However, the Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic, in the south and west and comprising about 59% of the island's area, and the north,[119] administered by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area. Another nearly 4% of the island's area is covered by theUN buffer zone. The international community considers the northern part of the island to be territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces.[i] The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of theEuropean Union.[125]
Post-division
A map showing the division of Cyprus
After the restoration of constitutional order and the return of ArchbishopMakarios III to Cyprus in December 1974, Turkish troops remained, occupying the northeastern portion of the island. In 1983, theTurkish Cypriot parliament, led by the Turkish Cypriot leaderRauf Denktaş,proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognised only by Turkey.[3]
The events of the summer of 1974 dominate thepolitics on the island, as well asGreco-Turkish relations.Turkish settlers have been settled in the north with the encouragement of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot states. The Republic of Cyprus considers their presence a violation of theGeneva Convention,[16]: 56–59 whilst many Turkish settlers have since severed their ties to Turkey and their second generation considers Cyprus to be their homeland.[126]
Foreign Ministers of the European Union countries in Limassol during Cyprus Presidency of the EU in 2012
The Turkish invasion, the ensuing occupation and the declaration of independence by the TRNC have been condemned by United Nations resolutions, which are reaffirmed by the Security Council every year.[127]
21st century
Street in the divided capital of Nicosia
Attempts to resolve the Cyprus dispute have continued. In 2004, theAnnan Plan, drafted by then UN Secretary GeneralKofi Annan, was put to areferendum in both Cypriot administrations. 65% of Turkish Cypriots voted in support of the plan and 74% Greek Cypriots voted against the plan, saying that it disproportionately favoured Turkish Cypriots and gave unreasonable influence over the nation to Turkey.[128] In total, 66.7% of the votersrejected the Annan Plan.
On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined theEuropean Union, together with nine other countries.[129] Cyprus was accepted into the EU as a whole, although the EU legislation is suspended in Northern Cyprus until a final settlement of the Cyprus problem.
Efforts have been made to enhance freedom of movement between the two sides. In April 2003, Northern Cyprus unilaterally eased checkpoint restrictions, permitting Cypriots to cross between the two sides for the first time in 30 years.[130] In March 2008, a wall that had stood for decades at the boundary between the Republic of Cyprus and theUN buffer zone was demolished.[131] The wall had cut acrossLedra Street in the heart of Nicosia and was seen as a strong symbol of the island's 32-year division. On 3 April 2008, Ledra Street was reopened in the presence of Greek and Turkish Cypriot officials.[132] The two sides relaunched reunification talks in 2015,[133] but these collapsed in 2017.[134]
TheEuropean Union warned in February 2019 that Cyprus was sellingEU passports toRussian oligarchs, and thus would alloworganised crime syndicates to infiltrate the EU.[135] In 2020, leaked documents revealed a wider range of former and current officials from Afghanistan, China, Dubai, Lebanon, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine and Vietnam who bought a Cypriot citizenship prior to a change of the law in July 2019.[136][137] Since 2020 Cyprus and Turkey have beenengaged in a dispute over the extent of theirexclusive economic zones, ostensibly sparked by oil and gas exploration in the area.[138]
In July 2024, on the 50th anniversary of the Turkish invasion of Northern Cyprus, Turkish President Erdoğan rejected a United Nations-endorsed plan for a federal government and supported the idea of having two separate states within Cyprus. Greek Cypriots immediately rejected Erdoğan's two-state proposal, calling it a "non-starter".[140]
Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after theItalian islands ofSicily andSardinia, both in terms of area and population.[3] It is also theworld's 80th largest by area andworld's 51st largest by population. It measures 240 kilometres (149 mi) long from end to end and 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide at its widest point, with Turkey 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the north. It lies between latitudes34° and36° N, and longitudes32° and35° E.
Other neighbouring territories include Syria and Lebanon to the east and southeast (105 and 108 kilometres (65 and 67 mi), respectively), Israel 200 kilometres (124 mi) to the southeast, The Gaza Strip 427 kilometres (265 mi) to the southeast, Egypt 380 kilometres (236 mi) to the south, and Greece to the northwest: 280 kilometres (174 mi) to the smallDodecanesian island ofKastellorizo (Megisti), 400 kilometres (249 mi) toRhodes and 800 kilometres (497 mi) to the Greek mainland. Cyprus is at the crossroads of three continents, with some sources placing Cyprus in Europe,[141][142][143] and some sources placing Cyprus in Western Asia and the Middle East.[144][3]
The physical relief of the island is dominated by two mountain ranges, theTroodos Mountains and the smallerKyrenia Range, and the central plain they encompass, theMesaoria. The Mesaoria plain is drained by thePedieos River, the longest on the island. The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area. The highest point on Cyprus isMount Olympus at 1,952 m (6,404 ft), in the centre of the Troodos range. The narrow Kyrenia Range, extending along the northern coastline, occupies substantially less area, and elevations are lower, reaching a maximum of 1,024 m (3,360 ft). The island lies within theAnatolian Plate.[145]
Geopolitically, the island is subdivided into four main segments. The Republic of Cyprus occupies the southern two-thirds of the island (59.74%). The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus occupies the northern third (34.85%), and the United Nations-controlledGreen Line provides abuffer zone that separates the two and covers 2.67% of the island. Lastly, there aretwo bases under British sovereignty on the island:Akrotiri and Dhekelia, covering the remaining 2.74%.
Cyprus has asubtropical climate –Mediterranean andsemi-arid type (in the north-eastern part of the island) –Köppen climate classificationsCsa andBSh,[148][149] with very mild winters (on the coast) and warm to hot summers. Snow is possible only in the Troodos Mountains in the central part of island. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry.
Cyprus has one of the warmest climates in the Mediterranean part of the European Union.[150] The average annual temperature on the coast is around 24 °C (75 °F) during the day and 14 °C (57 °F) at night. Generally, summers last about eight months, beginning in April with average temperatures of 21–23 °C (70–73 °F) during the day and 11–13 °C (52–55 °F) at night, and ending in November with average temperatures of 22–23 °C (72–73 °F) during the day and 12–14 °C (54–57 °F) at night, although in the remaining four months temperatures sometimes exceed 20 °C (68 °F).[151]
Sunshine hours on the coast are around 3,200 per year, from an average of 5–6 hours of sunshine per day in December to an average of 12–13 hours in July.[152] This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe; for comparison, London receives about 1,540 per year.[153] In December, London receives about 50 hours of sunshine[153] while coastal locations in Cyprus about 180 hours (almost as much as in May in London).
Cyprus suffers from a chronic shortage of water. The country relies heavily on rain to provide household water, but in the past 30 years average yearly precipitation has decreased.[154] Between 2001 and 2004, exceptionally heavy annual rainfall pushed water reserves up, with supply exceeding demand, allowing total storage in the island's reservoirs to rise to an all-time high by the start of 2005.However, since then demand has increased annually – a result of local population growth, foreigners moving to Cyprus and the number of visiting tourists – while supply has fallen as a result of more frequent droughts[154] (2006 European heat wave,2018 European heat wave,2019 European heat waves,2022 European heat waves).
Dams remain the principal source of water both for domestic and agricultural use; Cyprus has a total of 108 dams and reservoirs, with a total water storage capacity of about 330,000,000 m3 (1.2×1010 cu ft).[155] Waterdesalination plants are gradually being constructed to deal with recent years of prolonged drought.
The Government has invested heavily in the creation of water desalination plants which have supplied almost 50 per cent of domestic water since 2001. Efforts have also been made to raise public awareness of the situation and to encourage domestic water users to take more responsibility for the conservation of this increasingly scarce commodity.[156]
Turkey has built a water pipeline under the Mediterranean Sea fromAnamur on its southern coast to the northern coast of Cyprus, to supply Northern Cyprus with potable and irrigation water(seeNorthern Cyprus Water Supply Project).
Cyprus is apresidential republic. The head of state and of the government is elected by a process ofuniversal suffrage for a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the government with legislative power vested in theHouse of Representatives whilst the Judiciary is independent of both the executive and the legislature.
The 1960 Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative and judicial branches as well as a complex system of checks and balances including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive was led by a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice-president elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions. Legislative power rested on the House of Representatives who were also elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls.
Since 1965, following clashes between the two communities, theTurkish Cypriot seats in the House have remained vacant. In 1974 Cyprus was divided de facto when the Turkish army occupied the northern third of the island. The Turkish Cypriots subsequently declared independence in 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus but were recognised only by Turkey. In 1985 the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections. The United Nations recognises the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the entire island of Cyprus.
In 2008,Dimitris Christofias became the country's first Communist head of state. Due to his involvement in the2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis, Christofias did not run for re-election in 2013. The Presidential election in 2013 resulted inDemocratic Rally candidateNicos Anastasiades winning 57.48% of the vote. As a result, Anastasiades was sworn in on 28 February 2013. Anastasiades was re-elected with 56% of the vote in the2018 presidential election.[158][159] On 28 February 2023,Nikos Christodoulides, the winner of the 2023 presidentialelection run-off, was sworn in as the eighth president of the Republic of Cyprus.[160]
TheUN buffer zone runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side offAyios Nikolaos and is connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor. In that sense the buffer zone turns theParalimni area on the southeast corner of the island into a de facto, though notde jure, exclave.
TheCypriot National Guard is the main military institution of the Republic of Cyprus. It is acombined arms force, with land, air and naval elements. Historically all male citizens were required to spend 24 months serving in the National Guard after their 17th birthday, but in 2016 this period of compulsory service was reduced to 14 months.[165]
Annually, approximately 10,000 persons are trained in recruit centres. Depending on their awarded speciality the conscript recruits are then transferred to speciality training camps or to operational units.
While until 2016 the armed forces were mainly conscript based, since then a large professional enlisted institution has been adopted (ΣΥΟΠ), which combined with the reduction of conscript service produces an approximate 3:1 ratio between conscript and professional enlisted.
TheCyprus Police (Greek:Αστυνομία Κύπρου,Turkish:Kıbrıs Polisi) is the only National Police Service of the Republic of Cyprus and is under the Ministry of Justice and Public Order since 1993.[166]
In "Freedom in the World 2011", Freedom House rated Cyprus as "free".[167] In January 2011, the Report of the Office of theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the question of Human Rights in Cyprus noted that the ongoing division of Cyprus continues to affect human rights throughout the island "including freedom of movement, human rights pertaining to the question of missing persons, discrimination, the right to life, freedom of religion, and economic, social and cultural rights".[168] The constant focus on the division of the island can sometimes mask other human rights issues.[169] Prostitution is rife, and the island has been criticized for its role in the sex trade as one of the main routes ofhuman trafficking from Eastern Europe.[170][171]
In 2014, Turkey was ordered by theEuropean Court of Human Rights to pay well over $100m in compensation to Cyprus for the invasion;[172]Ankara announced that it would ignore the judgment.[173] In 2014, a group of Cypriot refugees and a European parliamentarian, later joined by the Cypriot government, filed a complaint to the International Court of Justice, accusing Turkey of violating theGeneva Conventions by directly or indirectly transferringits civilian population into occupied territory.[citation needed] Other violations of the Geneva and the Hague Conventions—both ratified by Turkey—amount to what archaeologist Sophocles Hadjisavvas called "the organised destruction of Greek and Christian heritage in the north".[174] These violations include looting of cultural treasures, deliberate destruction of churches, neglect of works of art, and altering the names of important historical sites, which was condemned by theInternational Council on Monuments and Sites. Hadjisavvas has asserted that these actions are motivated by a Turkish policy of erasing the Greek presence in Northern Cyprus within a framework of ethnic cleansing. But some perpetrators are just motivated by greed and are seeking profit.[174] Art law expert Alessandro Chechi has classified the connection of cultural heritage destruction to ethnic cleansing as the "Greek Cypriot viewpoint", which he reports as having been dismissed by twoPACE reports. Chechi asserts joint Greek and Turkish Cypriot responsibility for the destruction of cultural heritage in Cyprus, noting the destruction of Turkish Cypriot heritage in the hands of Greek Cypriot extremists.[175]
In the early 21st century, Cyprus boasted a prosperous service-based economy that made it the wealthiest of the ten countries that joined the European Union in 2004.[176] However, the Cypriot economy was later damaged by theglobal financial crisis and theEurozone crisis. In June 2012, the Cypriot government announced it would need €1.8 billion in foreign aid to support theCyprus Popular Bank, and this was followed byFitch downgrading Cyprus's credit rating tojunk status.[177] Fitch stated Cyprus would need an additional €4 billion to support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure ofBank of Cyprus,Cyprus Popular Bank, andHellenic Bank, Cyprus's three largest banks, to theGreek financial crisis.[177]
Cyprus made a staggering[clarification needed] economic recovery in the 2010s,[181] and according to the 2023 International Monetary Fund estimates, Cyprus'per capita GDP at$54,611 is the highest inSouthern Europe, though slightly below the European Union average.[182] Tourism, financial services and shipping are significant parts of the economy, and Cyprus has been sought as a base for several offshore businesses due its low tax rates andease of doing business. Robust growth was achieved in the 1980s and 1990s, due to the focus placed by Cypriot governments on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union.[183] The Cypriot government adopted the euro as the national currency on 1 January 2008, replacing theCypriot pound.[176]
In recent years significant quantities of offshore natural gas have been discovered in the area known asAphrodite (at the exploratory drilling block 12) in Cyprus's exclusive economic zone (EEZ),[187] about 175 kilometres (109 miles) south of Limassol at 33°5'40″N and 32°59'0″E.[188] However, Turkey's offshore drilling companies have accessed both natural gas and oil resources since 2013.[189] Cyprus demarcated its maritime border with Egypt in 2003, with Lebanon in 2007,[190] and with Israel in 2010.[191] In August 2011, the US-based firmNoble Energy entered into a production-sharing agreement with the Cypriot government regarding the block's commercial development.[192]
Turkey, which does not recognise the border agreements of Cyprus with its neighbours,[193] threatened to mobilise its naval forces if Cyprus proceeded with plans to begin drilling at Block 12.[194] Cyprus's drilling efforts have the support of the US, EU, and UN, and on 19 September 2011 drilling in Block 12 began without any incidents being reported.[195]
Per capita private car ownership is the 29th-highest in the world.[196] There were approximately 344,000 privately owned vehicles, and a total of 517,000 registered motor vehicles in the Republic of Cyprus in 2006.[197] In 2006, plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and other public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of theEuropean Union Development Bank. In 2010 the new bus network was implemented.[198]
Cyprus has two international airports in the government-controlled areas, the busier one being inLarnaca and the other inPaphos.[199] TheErcan International Airport is the only active one in the non-government-controlled areas, but all international flights there must have a stopover in Turkey.[200]
Cyta, thestate-owned telecommunications company, manages most telecommunications and Internet connections on the island. However, following deregulation of the sector, a few private telecommunications companies emerged, includingepic,Cablenet,OTEnet Telecom,Omega Telecom andPrimeTel. In the non-government-controlled areas of Cyprus, two different companies administer the mobile phone network:Turkcell andKKTC Telsim.[citation needed]
Population growth, 1961–2003 (numbers for the entire island, excluding Turkish settlers residing in Northern Cyprus)2010 population by age and gender
According to the Republic of Cyprus' website, the population in the government controlled areas was 918,100 at the 2021 Census, with the most populous district being Nicosia (38%), followed by Limassol (28%).[201] The Nicosia Metropolitan area, consisting of seven municipalities, is the largest urban area on the island with a population of 255,309.[202]
As per the first population census after independence, carried out in December 1960 and covering the entire island, Cyprus had a total population of 573,566, of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others.[94][203] The CIA World Factbook calculated that in 2001,Greek Cypriots comprised 77%,Turkish Cypriots 18%, and others 5% of the total Cypriot population.[204][205]
Due to the inter-communal ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974, an island-wide census was regarded as impossible. Nevertheless, the Cypriot government conducted one in 1973, without the Turkish Cypriot populace.[206] According to this census, the Greek Cypriot population was 482,000. One year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the total population of Cyprus at 641,000; of whom 506,000 (78.9%) were Greeks, and 118,000 (18.4%) Turkish.[207] After the military occupation of part of the island in 1974, the government of Cyprus conducted six more censuses: in 1976, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2011 and 2021; these excluded the Turkish population which was resident in non-government-controlled areas of the island.[203]
In addition to this, the Republic of Cyprus is home to 110,200 foreign permanent residents[208] and an estimated 10,000–30,000 undocumented illegal immigrants.[209][205] As of 2011, there were 10,520 people ofRussian origin living in Cyprus.[210][211]
Largest groups of foreign residents
Nationality
Population (2011)
Greece
29,321
United Kingdom
24,046
Romania
23,706
Bulgaria
18,536
Philippines
9,413
Russia
8,164
Sri Lanka
7,269
Vietnam
7,028
Syria
3,054
India
2,933
According to the 2006 census carried out by Northern Cyprus, there were 256,644 (de jure) people living in Northern Cyprus. 178,031 were citizens of Northern Cyprus, of whom 147,405 were born in Cyprus (112,534 from the north; 32,538 from the south; 371 did not indicate what region of Cyprus they were from); 27,333 born in Turkey; 2,482 born in the UK and 913 born in Bulgaria. Of the 147,405 citizens born in Cyprus, 120,031 say both parents were born in Cyprus; 16,824 say both parents born in Turkey; 10,361 have one parent born in Turkey and one parent born in Cyprus.[212]
In 2010, theInternational Crisis Group estimated that the total population of the island was 1.1 million,[213] of which there were an estimated 300,000 residents in the north, perhaps half of whom wereeither born in Turkey or are children of such settlers.[214]
The villages ofRizokarpaso (in Northern Cyprus), Potamia (in Nicosia district) andPyla (inLarnaca District) are the only settlements remaining with a mixed Greek and Turkish Cypriot population.[215]
Y-Dna haplogroups are found at the following frequencies in Cyprus:J (43.07% including 6.20% J1),E1b1b (20.00%),R1 (12.30% including 9.2% R1b),F (9.20%),I (7.70%),K (4.60%),A (3.10%).[216] J, K, F and E1b1b haplogroups consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe.
According to the 2001 census carried out in the government-controlled areas,[222] 94.8% of the population wasEastern Orthodox, 0.9%Armenian andMaronite, 1.5% Roman Catholic, 1.0%Church of England, and 0.6% Muslim. There is also aJewish community on Cyprus. The remaining 1.3% adhered to other religious denominations or did not state their religion. The Greek Orthodox,Armenian Apostolic Church, and both the Maronite andLatin Catholics are constitutionally recognised denominations and exempt from taxes.[223][224]
Cyprus has two official languages, Greek andTurkish.[225]Armenian andCypriot Maronite Arabic are recognised as minority languages.[226][227] Although without official status,English is widely spoken and features widely on road signs and in public notices and advertisements.[228] English was the sole official language during British colonial rule and thelingua franca until 1960, and continued to be used (de facto) in courts of law until 1989 and in legislation until 1996.[229] In 2010, 80.4% of Cypriots were proficient in English as asecond language.[230] Russian is widely spoken among the country's minorities, residents and citizens of post-Soviet countries, andPontic Greeks.Russian, after English and Greek, is the third language used on many signs of shops and restaurants, particularly in Limassol and Paphos. In addition, in 2006, 12% of the population spokeFrench and 5% spokeGerman.[231]
Cyprus has a highly developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. The high quality of instruction can be attributed in part to the fact that nearly 7% of the GDP is spent on education which makes Cyprus one of the top three spenders of education in the EU along with Denmark and Sweden.[232] Cyprus was ranked 27th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[233]
State schools are generally seen as equivalent in quality of education to private-sector institutions. However, the value of a state high-school diploma is limited by the fact that the grades obtained account for only around 25% of the final grade for each topic, with the remaining 75% assigned by the teacher during the semester, in a minimally transparent way. Cypriot universities (like universities in Greece) ignore high school grades almost entirely for admissions purposes. While a high-school diploma is mandatory for university attendance, admissions are decided almost exclusively on the basis of scores at centrally administered university entrance examinations that all university candidates are required to take.
The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, other European and North American universities. Cyprus currently[when?] has the highest percentage of citizens ofworking age who have higher-level education in the EU at 30% which is ahead of Finland's 29.5%. In addition, 47% of its population aged 25–34 have tertiary education, which is the highest in the EU. The body of Cypriot students is highly mobile, with 78.7% studying in a university outside Cyprus.
Greek and Turkish Cypriots share many cultural traits, while also possessing some differences. Several traditional food (such assouvla andhalloumi) and beverages are similar,[234] as well as expressions and ways of life. Hospitality and buying or offering food and drinks for guests or others are common among both. In both communities, music, dance and art are integral parts of social life and many artistic, verbal and nonverbal expressions, traditional dances such astsifteteli, similarities in dance costumes and importance placed on social activities are shared between the communities.[235] However, the two communities have distinct religions and religious cultures, with the Greek Cypriots traditionally beingGreek Orthodox and Turkish Cypriots traditionally beingSunni Muslims, which has partly hindered cultural exchange.[236] Greek Cypriots have influences from Greece and Christianity, while Turkish Cypriots have influences from Turkey andIslam.
The art history of Cyprus can be said to stretch back up to 10,000 years, following the discovery of a series ofChalcolithic period carved figures in the villages ofKhoirokoitia andLempa.[238] The island is the home to numerous examples of high quality religiousicon painting from theMiddle Ages as well asmany painted churches. Cypriot architecture was heavily influenced byFrench Gothic and Italianrenaissance introduced in the island during the era of Latin domination (1191–1571).
A well known traditional art that dates at least from the 14th century is theLefkara lace, which originates from the village ofLefkara. Lefkara lace is recognised as anintangible cultural heritage (ICH) by UNESCO, and it is characterised by distinct design patterns, and its intricate, time-consuming production process. Another local form of art that originated from Lefkara is the production of Cypriot Filigree (locally known asTrifourenio), a type of jewellery that is made with twisted threads of silver.
In modern times Cypriot art history begins with the painter Vassilis Vryonides (1883–1958) who studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice.[239] Arguably the two founding fathers of modern Cypriot art were Adamantios Diamantis (1900–1994) who studied at London'sRoyal College of Art and Christophoros Savva (1924–1968) who also studied in London, atSaint Martin's School of Art.[240] In 1960, Savva founded, together with Welsh artist Glyn Hughes, Apophasis [Decision], the first independent cultural centre of the newly established Republic of Cyprus. In 1968, Savva was among the artists representing Cyprus in its inaugural Pavilion at the 34th Venice Biennale. English Cypriot ArtistGlyn HUGHESArchived 19 June 2021 at theWayback Machine 1931–2014.[241] In many ways these two artists set the template for subsequent Cypriot art and both their artistic styles and the patterns of their education remain influential to this day. In particular the majority of Cypriot artists still train in England[242] while others train at art schools in Greece and local art institutions such as theCyprus College of Art,University of Nicosia and theFrederick Institute of Technology.
One of the features of Cypriot art is a tendency towards figurative painting althoughconceptual art is being rigorously promoted by a number of art "institutions" and most notably the Nicosia Municipal Art Centre. Municipal art galleries exist in all the main towns and there is a large and lively commercial art scene.
Laouto, dominant instrument of the Cypriot traditional music
The traditionalfolk music of Cyprus has several common elements withGreek,Turkish, andArabic Music, all of which have descended from Byzantine music, including Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot dances such as thetillirkotissa, as well as the Middle Eastern-inspiredtsifteteli andarapies. There is also a form of musical poetry known aschattista which is often performed at traditional feasts and celebrations. The instruments commonly associated with Cyprus folk music are the violin ("fkiolin"),lute ("laouto"), Cyprus flute (pithkiavlin),oud ("outi"),kanonaki and percussions (including the "tamboutsia"). Composers associated with traditional Cypriot music includeSolon Michaelides,Marios Tokas, Evagoras Karageorgis and Savvas Salides. Among musicians is also the acclaimed pianistCyprien Katsaris, composerAndreas G. Orphanides, and composer and artistic director of the European Capital of Culture initiativeMarios Joannou Elia.
Literary production of the antiquity includes theCypria, anepic poem, probably composed in the late 7th century BC and attributed toStasinus. TheCypria is one of the first specimens of Greek and European poetry.[247] The CypriotZeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy.
Epic poetry, notably the "acritic songs", flourished during theMiddle Ages. Two chronicles, one written byLeontios Machairas and the other byGeorgios Boustronios, cover the entire Middle Ages until the end of Frankish rule (4th century–1489).Poèmes d'amour written in medieval Greek Cypriot date back from the 16th century. Some of them are actual translations of poems written byPetrarch,Bembo,Ariosto and G. Sannazzaro.[248] Many Cypriot scholars fled Cyprus at troubled times, such asIoannis Kigalas (c. 1622–1687) who migrated from Cyprus to Italy in the 17th century, several of his works have survived in books of other scholars.[249]
There is an increasingly strong presence of both temporary and permanent emigre Cypriot writers in world literature, as well as writings by second and third-generation Cypriot writers born or raised abroad, often writing in English. This includes writers such asMichael Paraskos andStephanos Stephanides.[256]
Examples of Cyprus in foreign literature include the works of Shakespeare, with most of the playOthello byWilliam Shakespeare set on the island of Cyprus. British writerLawrence Durrell lived in Cyprus from 1952 until 1956, during his time working for the British colonial government on the island, and wrote the bookBitter Lemons about his time in Cyprus which won the secondDuff Cooper Prize in 1957.
In the 2015 Freedom of the Press report ofFreedom House, the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus were ranked "free". The Republic of Cyprus scored 25/100 inpress freedom, 5/30 in Legal Environment, 11/40 in Political Environment, and 9/30 in Economic Environment (the lower scores the better).[257]Reporters Without Borders rank the Republic of Cyprus 24th out of 180 countries in the 2015 World Press Freedom Index, with a score of 15.62.[258]
The law provides forfreedom of speech andpress, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.[259]
Local television companies in Cyprus include the state ownedCyprus Broadcasting Corporation which runs two television channels. In addition on the Greek side of the island there are the private channels ANT1 Cyprus, Plus TV, Mega Channel, Sigma TV, Nimonia TV (NTV) and New Extra. In Northern Cyprus, the local channels areBRT, the Turkish Cypriot equivalent to the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, and a number of private channels. The majority of local arts and cultural programming is produced by the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation and BRT, with local arts documentaries, review programmes and filmed drama series.
The most worldwide known Cypriot director, to have worked abroad, isMichael Cacoyannis.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, George Filis produced and directedGregoris Afxentiou,Etsi Prodothike i Kypros, andThe Mega Document. In 1994, Cypriot film production received a boost with the establishment of the Cinema Advisory Committee. In 2000, the annual amount set aside for filmmaking in the national budget wasCYP£500,000 (about €850,000). In addition to government grants, Cypriot co-productions are eligible for funding from theCouncil of Europe'sEurimages Fund, which finances European film co-productions. To date, four feature films on which a Cypriot was an executive producer have received funding from Eurimages. The first wasI Sphagi tou Kokora (1996), followed byHellados (unreleased),To Tama (1999), andO Dromos gia tin Ithaki (2000).[260]
During the medieval period, under the French Lusignan monarchs of Cyprus an elaborate form of courtly cuisine developed, fusing French, Byzantine and Middle Eastern forms. The Lusignan kings were known for importing Syrian cooks to Cyprus, and it has been suggested that one of the key routes for the importation of Middle Eastern recipes into France and other Western European countries, such as blancmange, was via the Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus. These recipes became known in the West asvyands de Chypre, or foods of Cyprus, and the food historian William Woys Weaver has identified over one hundred of them in English, French, Italian and German recipe books of the Middle Ages. One that became particularly popular across Europe in the medieval and early modern periods was a stew made with chicken or fish calledmalmonia, which in English became mawmeny.[261]
Another example of a Cypriot food ingredient entering the Western European canon is the cauliflower, still popular and used in a variety of ways on the island today, which was associated with Cyprus from the early Middle Ages. Writing in the 12th and 13th centuries the Arab botanistsIbn al-'Awwam andIbn al-Baitar claimed the vegetable had its origins in Cyprus,[262][263] and this association with the island was echoed in Western Europe, where cauliflowers were originally known as Cyprus cabbage orCyprus colewart. There was also a long and extensive trade in cauliflower seeds from Cyprus, until well into the sixteenth century.[264]
Although much of the Lusignan food culture was lost after the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans in 1571, a number of dishes that would have been familiar to the Lusignans survive today, including various forms of tahini and houmous, zalatina, skordalia and pickled wild song birds called ambelopoulia.Ambelopoulia, which is today highly controversial, and illegal, was exported in vast quantities from Cyprus during the Lusignan and Venetian periods, particularly to Italy and France. In 1533 the English traveller to Cyprus, John Locke, claimed to have seen the pickled wild birds packed into large jars, of which 1200 jars were exported from Cyprus annually.[265]
Also familiar to the Lusignans would have beenHalloumi cheese, which some food writers today claim originated in Cyprus during the Byzantine period[266][267][268] although the name of the cheese itself is thought by academics to be of Arabic origin.[269] There is no surviving written documentary evidence of the cheese being associated with Cyprus before the year 1554, when the Italian historianFlorio Bustron wrote of a sheep-milk cheese from Cyprus he calledcalumi.[269] Halloumi (Hellim) is commonly served sliced, grilled, fried and sometimes fresh, as an appetiser ormeze dish.
Seafood and fish dishes include squid, octopus,red mullet, andsea bass. Cucumber and tomato are used widely in salads. Common vegetable preparations include potatoes in olive oil and parsley, pickled cauliflower and beets, asparagus andtaro. Other traditional delicacies are meat marinated in dried coriander seeds and wine, and eventually dried and smoked, such aslountza (smokedpork loin), charcoal-grilled lamb,souvlaki (pork and chicken cooked over charcoal), andsheftalia (minced meat wrapped inmesentery).Pourgouri (bulgur, cracked wheat) is the traditional source of carbohydrate other than bread, and is used to make the delicacykoubes.
Fresh vegetables and fruits are common ingredients. Frequently used vegetables include courgettes, green peppers,okra, green beans, artichokes, carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce and grape leaves, and pulses such as beans, broad beans, peas, black-eyed beans, chick-peas and lentils. The most common fruits and nuts are pears, apples, grapes, oranges,mandarines, nectarines,medlar, blackberries, cherry, strawberries, figs, watermelon, melon, avocado, lemon, pistachio, almond, chestnut, walnut, and hazelnut.
FootballerSotiris Kaiafas won theEuropean Golden Shoe in the 1975–76 season; Cyprus is the smallest country by population to have one of its players win the award. Tennis playerMarcos Baghdatis was ranked 8th in the world, was a finalist at the Australian Open, and reached theWimbledon semi-final, all in 2006. High jumperKyriakos Ioannou achieved a jump of 2.35m at the 11thIAAF World Championships in Athletics inOsaka, Japan, in 2007, winning the bronze medal. He has been ranked third in the world. In motorsports,Tio Ellinas is a successful race car driver, currently racing in theGP3 Series for MarussiaManor Motorsport. There is also mixed martial artistCostas Philippou, who competed inUFC's middleweight division from 2011 until 2015. Costas holds a 6–4 record in UFC bouts.
^Barbara Rose Johnston, Susan Slyomovics.Waging War, Making Peace: Reparations and Human Rights (2009), American Anthropological Association Reparations Task Force,p. 211Archived 12 April 2016 at theWayback Machine
^Morelli, Vincent.Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive (2011), DIANE Publishing,p. 10Archived 13 April 2016 at theWayback Machine
^Borowiec, Andrew.Cyprus: A Troubled Island (2000), Greenwood Publishing Group,p. 125Archived 12 April 2016 at theWayback Machine
^Simmons, A. H.Faunal extinction in an island society: pygmy hippopotamus hunters of Cyprus. New York: Springer 1999, p. 15.[1]Archived 12 April 2016 at theWayback Machine
^Thomas, Carol G. and Conant, Craig:The Trojan War, pp. 121–122. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005.ISBN0-313-32526-X, 9780313325267.
^Andreas G. Orphanides, "Late Bronze Age Socio-Economic and Political Organization, and the Hellenization of Cyprus", Athens Journal of History, volume 3, number 1, 2017, pp. 7–20
^Michael Spilling; Jo-ann Spilling (2010).Cyprus. Marshall Cavendish. p. 23.ISBN978-0-7614-4855-6.Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved20 June 2015.
^ab This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. Keefe, Eugene K.; Solsten, Eric (1993). "Historical Setting". In Solsten, Eric (ed.).Cyprus: A Country Study (Fourth ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 10–12.ISBN0-8444-0752-6.
^Metcalf, David Michael (2009).Byzantine Cyprus, 491–1191. Cyprus Research Centre. pp. 32–33,427–421.
^Norwich, J. J. (1995)Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. London: Viking, p. 121
^Riddle, J.M.A History of the Middle Ages. Lanham, MD, US: Rowman & Littlefield 2008. p. 326.[3]Archived 15 September 2015 at theWayback Machine
^See James G. Schryver, 'Colonialism or Conviviencia in Frankish Cyprus?' in I.W. Zartman (ed.),Understanding Life in the Borderlands: Boundaries in Depth and in Motio (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2010) pp. 133–159; see also Evangelia Skoufari "Cyprus during the 16th century: a Frankish kingdom, a Venetian colony, a multicultural society", inJoves pensant la Mediterrània – Mar de diàleg, no. 5 dir. Enric Olivé Serret, Tarragona, Publicacions de la Universitat Rovira y Virgili, Tarragona 2008, pp. 283–295.
^Benjamin Arbel, David Jacoby,Intercultural Contacts in the Medieval Mediterranean, (London: Taylor and Francis, 1996) p. 45
^Eric Solsten, ed. (1991)."Cyprus: A Country Study".Countrystudies.us. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved16 April 2013.
^Orhonlu, Cengiz (2010), "The Ottoman Turks Settle in Cyprus", in Inalcık, Halil (ed.),The First International Congress of Cypriot Studies: Presentations of the Turkish Delegation, Institute for the Study of Turkish Culture, p. 99
^Jennings, Ronald (1993),Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean World, 1571–1640, New York University Press, p. 232,ISBN978-0-8147-4181-8
^Baten, Jörg (2016).A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 51.ISBN978-1-107-50718-0.
^abcStavridis, Stavros Terry (31 July 1993),Greek-Cypriot Enosis of October 1915: “A Lost Opportunity?”.La Trobe University. p. 289. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
^Ker-Lindsay, James (2011).The Cyprus Problem: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–5.ISBN978-0-19-975716-9.They hoped that the transfer of administration would pave the way for the island to be united with Greece—an aspiration known as 'enosis.' At the time, these calls for enosis were not just limited to Cyprus. Instead, Cyprus was part of a wider political movement ... This overarching political ambition was known as the Megali Idea (Great Idea).
^Mirbagheri, Farid (2009).Historical Dictionary of Cyprus. Scarecrow Press. p. xiv.ISBN978-0-8108-6298-2.Greek Cypriots engaged in a military campaign for enosis, union with Greece. Turkish Cypriots, in response, expressed their desire for taksim, partition of the island.
^Behlul (Behlul) Ozkan (Ozkan) (26 June 2012).From the Abode of Islam to the Turkish Vatan: The Making of a National Homeland in Turkey. Yale University Press. p. 199.ISBN978-0-300-18351-1.Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved20 June 2015.In line with the nationalist rhetoric that "Cyprus is Turkish", Menderes predicated his declaration upon the geographic proximity between Cyprus and Anatolia, thereby defining "Cyprus as an extension of Anatolia". It was striking that Menderes rejected partitioning the island into two ethnic states, a position that would define Turkey's foreign policy regarding Cyprus after 1957
^abG. Bellingeri; T. Kappler (2005).Cipro oggi. Casa editrice il Ponte. pp. 27–29.ISBN978-88-89465-07-3.Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved20 June 2015.The educational and political mobilisation between 1948–1958, aiming at raising Turkish national consciousness, resulted in the involving Turkey as motherland in the Cyprus Question. From then on, Turkey, would work hand in hand with the Turkish Cypriot leadership and the British government to oppose the Greek Cypriot demand for Enosis and realise the partition of Cyprus, which meanwhile became the national policy.
^Grob-Fitzgibbon, Benjamin (2011).Imperial Endgame: Britain's Dirty Wars and the End of Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 285.ISBN978-0-230-30038-5.
^Oberling, Pierre.The road to Bellapais (1982), Social Science Monographs,p. 120Archived 28 April 2023 at theWayback Machine: "According to official records, 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the 1963–1964 crisis."
^Jacob M. Landau (1979).Johnson's 1964 letter to Inonu and Greek lobbying of the White House. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Leonard Davis Institute for International Relations.
^Papadakis, Yiannis (2003). "Nation, narrative and commemoration: political ritual in divided Cyprus".History and Anthropology.14 (3):253–270.doi:10.1080/0275720032000136642.S2CID143231403.culminating in the 1974 coup aimed at the annexation of Cyprus to Greece
^Ronen, Yaël (2011).Transition from Illegal Regimes under International Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 62.ISBN978-1-139-49617-9.Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved23 September 2020.Tensions escalated again in July 1974, following a coup d'état by Greek Cypriots favouring a union of Cyprus with Greece. In response to the coup, Turkey invaded Cyprus.
^Ker-Lindsay, James; Faustmann, Hubert; Mullen, Fiona (2011).An Island in Europe: The EU and the Transformation of Cyprus. I.B. Tauris. p. 3.ISBN9781848856783.Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved20 June 2015.Divided since 1974, when Turkish forces invaded in response to a Greek led coup, many observers felt that taking in the island would either be far too risky or far too problematic.
^Mirbagheri, Faruk (2009).Historical Dictionary of Cyprus. Scarecrow Press. p. 43.ISBN978-0-8108-6298-2.On 20 July 1974, in response to the coup and justifying its action under the Treaty of Guarantee, Turkey landed forces in Kyrenia.
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^Quigley (6 September 2010).The Statehood of Palestine. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.ISBN978-1-139-49124-2.Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved20 June 2015.The international community found this declaration invalid, on the ground that Turkey had occupied territory belonging to Cyprus and that the putative state was therefore an infringement on Cypriot sovereignty.
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