Early films in the genre includeRidley Scott's 1982 filmBlade Runner, one of several of Philip K. Dick's works that have been adapted into films (in this case,Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?). The "first cyberpunk television series"[4] was the TV seriesMax Headroom from 1987, playing in a futuristic dystopia ruled by an oligarchy of television networks, and where computer hacking played a central role in many story lines. More recently, the animated seriesBatman Beyond (1999–2001) is considered a noteworthy example of the cyberpunk genre. The filmsJohnny Mnemonic (1995)[5] andNew Rose Hotel (1998),[6][7] both based upon short stories by William Gibson, flopped commercially and critically, whileRobocop (1987),Total Recall (1990),Judge Dredd (1995), andThe Matrix trilogy (1999–2003) were more successful cyberpunk films.
Lawrence Person has attempted to define the content and ethos of the cyberpunk literary movement stating:
Classic cyberpunk characters were marginalized, alienated loners who lived on the edge of society in generally dystopic futures where daily life was impacted by rapid technological change, an ubiquitousdatasphere of computerized information, and invasive modification of the human body.
Cyberpunk plots often involve conflict betweenartificial intelligence,hackers, andmegacorporations, and tend to be set in a near-futureEarth, rather than in the far-future settings or galactic vistas found in novels such asIsaac Asimov'sFoundation orFrank Herbert'sDune.[9] The settings are usuallypost-industrialdystopias but tend to feature extraordinary cultural ferment and the use of technology in ways never anticipated by its original inventors ("the street finds its own uses for things").[10] Much of the genre's atmosphere echoesfilm noir, and written works in the genre often use techniques fromdetective fiction.[11] There are sources who view that cyberpunk has shifted from a literary movement to a mode of science fiction due to the limited number of writers and its transition to a more generalized cultural formation.[12][13][14]
The origins of cyberpunk are rooted in theNew Wave science fiction movement of the 1960s and 1970s, whereNew Worlds, under the editorship ofMichael Moorcock, began inviting and encouraging stories that examined new writing styles, techniques, andarchetypes. Reacting to conventional storytelling, New Wave authors attempted to present a world where society coped with a constant upheaval of new technology and culture, generally with dystopian outcomes. Writers likeRoger Zelazny,J. G. Ballard,Philip José Farmer,Samuel R. Delany, andHarlan Ellison often examined the impact of drug culture, technology, and the ongoing sexual revolution, drawing themes and influence from experimental literature ofBeat Generation authors such asWilliam S. Burroughs, and art movements likeDadaism.[15][16]
Ballard, a notable critic of literary archetypes in science fiction, instead employs metaphysical and psychological concepts, seeking greater relevance to readers of the day. Ballard's work is considered have had a profound influence on cyberpunk's development,[17][better source needed] as evidenced by the term "Ballardian" becoming used to ascribe literary excellence amongst science fiction social circles.[18] Ballard, along with Zelazny and others continued the popular development of "realism" within the genre.[19]
Delany's 1968 novelNova, considered a forerunner of cyberpunk literature,[20] includes neural implants, a now popular cyberpunktrope for human computer interfaces.[21]Philip K. Dick's novel,Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, first published in 1968, shares common dystopian themes with later works by Gibson and Sterling, and is praised for its "realist" exploration of cybernetic and artificial intelligence ideas and ethics.[citation needed]
Bethke says he made two lists of words, one for technology, one for troublemakers, and experimented with combining them variously into compound words, consciously attempting to coin a term that encompassed both punk attitudes and high technology. He described the idea thus:
The kids who trashed my computer; their kids were going to be Holy Terrors, combining the ethical vacuity of teenagers with a technical fluency we adults could only guess at. Further, the parents and other adult authority figures of the early 21st Century were going to be terribly ill-equipped to deal with the first generation of teenagers who grew up truly "speaking computer".[26]
Afterward, Dozois began using this term in his own writing, most notably in a 1984Washington Post article where he said "About the closest thing here to a self-willed esthetic 'school' would be the purveyors of bizarre hard-edged, high-tech stuff, who have on occasion been referred to as 'cyberpunks' — Sterling, Gibson, Shiner, Cadigan, Bear."[27]
Also in 1984, William Gibson's novelNeuromancer was published, delivering a glimpse of a future encompassed by what became an archetype of cyberpunk "virtual reality", with the human mind being fed light-based worldscapes through a computer interface. Some, perhaps ironically including Bethke himself, argued at the time that the writers whose style Gibson's books epitomized should be called "Neuromantics", a pun on the name of the novel plus "New Romantics", a term used for a New Wave pop music movement that had just occurred in Britain, but this term did not catch on. Bethke later paraphrasedMichael Swanwick's argument for the term: "the movement writers should properly be termed neuromantics, since so much of what they were doing was clearly imitatingNeuromancer".
Sterling was another writer who played a central role, often consciously, in the cyberpunk genre, variously seen as either keeping it on track, or distorting its natural path into a stagnant formula.[28] In 1986, he edited a volume of cyberpunk stories calledMirrorshades: The Cyberpunk Anthology, an attempt to establish what cyberpunk was, from Sterling's perspective.[29]
In the subsequent decade, the motifs of Gibson'sNeuromancer became formulaic, climaxing in the satirical extremes ofNeal Stephenson'sSnow Crash in 1992.
Bookending the cyberpunk era, Bethke himself published a novel in 1995 calledHeadcrash, likeSnow Crash a satirical attack on the genre's excesses. Fittingly, it won an honor named after cyberpunk's spiritual founder, thePhilip K. Dick Award. It satirized the genre in this way:
...full of young guys with no social lives, no sex lives and no hope of ever moving out of their mothers' basements ... They're total wankers and losers who indulge in Messianic fantasies about someday getting even with the world through almost-magical computer skills, but whose actual use of the Net amounts to dialing up the scatophilia forum and downloading a few disgusting pictures. You know, cyberpunks.[30]
Primary figures in the cyberpunk movement include William Gibson, Neal Stephenson, Bruce Sterling, Bruce Bethke,Pat Cadigan,Rudy Rucker, andJohn Shirley. Philip K. Dick (author ofDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, from which the filmBlade Runner was adapted) is also seen by some as prefiguring the movement.[31]
Life inKowloon Walled City has often inspired the dystopian identity in modern media works.
Cyberpunk writers tend to use elements fromcrime fiction—particularlyhardboileddetective fiction andfilm noir—andpostmodernist prose to describe an oftennihilistic underground side of an electronic society. The genre's vision of atroubled future is often called the antithesis of the generallyutopian visions of the future popular in the 1940s and 1950s. Gibson defined cyberpunk's antipathy towards utopian science fiction in his 1981 short story "The Gernsback Continuum", which pokes fun at and, to a certain extent, condemns utopian science fiction.[33][34][35]
In some cyberpunk writing, much of the action takes placeonline, incyberspace, blurring the line between actual andvirtual reality.[36] A typicaltrope in such work is a directconnection between the human brain and computer systems. Cyberpunk settings are dystopias with corruption, computers, and computer networks.
The economic and technological state ofJapan is a regular theme in the cyberpunk literature of the 1980s. Of Japan's influence on the genre, William Gibson said, "Modern Japan simply was cyberpunk."[37] Cyberpunk is often set in urbanized, artificial landscapes, and "city lights, receding" was used by Gibson as one of the genre's firstmetaphors for cyberspace and virtual reality.[38]
The cityscapes ofHong Kong[39] has had major influences in the urban backgrounds, ambiance and settings in many cyberpunk works such asBlade Runner andShadowrun.Ridley Scott envisioned the landscape of cyberpunkLos Angeles inBlade Runner to be "Hong Kong on a very bad day".[40] The streetscapes of theGhost in the Shell film were based on Hong Kong. Its directorMamoru Oshii felt that Hong Kong's strange and chaotic streets where "old and new exist in confusing relationships" fit the theme of the film well.[39] Hong Kong'sKowloon Walled City is particularly notable for its disorganized hyper-urbanization and breakdown in traditional urban planning to be an inspiration to cyberpunk landscapes. During theBritish rule of Hong Kong, it was an area neglected by both the British and Qing administrations, embodying elements of liberalism in a dystopian context. Portrayals of East Asia and Asians in Western cyberpunk have been criticized asOrientalist and promoting racist tropes playing on American and European fears of East Asian dominance;[41][42] this has been referred to as "techno-Orientalism".[43]
Cyberpunk can be intended to disquiet readers and call them to action. It often expresses a sense of rebellion, suggesting that one could describe it as a type of cultural revolution in science fiction. In the words of author and criticDavid Brin:
...a closer look [at cyberpunk authors] reveals that they nearly always portray future societies in which governments have become wimpy and pathetic ...Popular science fiction tales by Gibson, Williams, Cadigan and othersdo depictOrwellian accumulations of power in the next century, but nearly always clutched in the secretive hands of a wealthy or corporateelite.[44]
Cyberpunk stories have also been seen as fictional forecasts of the evolution of theInternet. The earliest descriptions of a global communications network came long before theWorld Wide Web entered popular awareness, though not before traditional science-fiction writers such asArthur C. Clarke and some social commentators such asJames Burke began predicting that such networks would eventually form.[45]
Some observers cite that cyberpunk tends to marginalize sectors of society such as women and people of colour. It is claimed that, for instance, cyberpunk depicts fantasies that ultimately empowermasculinity using fragmentary and decentered aesthetic that culminate in a masculine genre populated by male outlaws.[46] Critics also note the absence of any reference to Africa or black characters in the quintessential cyberpunk filmBlade Runner,[12] while other films reinforce stereotypes.[47]
Minnesota writerBruce Bethke coined the term in 1983 for his short story "Cyberpunk", which was published in an issue ofAmazing Science Fiction Stories.[48] The term was quickly appropriated as a label to be applied to the works ofWilliam Gibson,Bruce Sterling,Pat Cadigan and others. Of these, Sterling became the movement's chief ideologue, thanks to hisfanzineCheap Truth. John Shirley wrote articles on Sterling and Rucker's significance.[49]John Brunner's 1975 novelThe Shockwave Rider is considered by many[who?] to be the first cyberpunk novel with many of thetropes commonly associated with the genre, some five years before the term was popularized by Dozois.[50]
William Gibson with his novelNeuromancer (1984) is arguably the most famous writer connected with the term cyberpunk. He emphasized style, a fascination with surfaces, and atmosphere over traditional science-fiction tropes. Regarded as ground-breaking and sometimes as "the archetypal cyberpunk work",[8]Neuromancer was awarded theHugo,Nebula, andPhilip K. Dick Awards.Count Zero (1986) andMona Lisa Overdrive (1988) followed after Gibson's popular debut novel. According to theJargon File, "Gibson's near-total ignorance of computers and the present-day hacker culture enabled him to speculate about the role of computers and hackers in the future in ways hackers have since found both irritatingly naïve and tremendously stimulating."[51]
Early on, cyberpunk was hailed as a radical departure from science-fiction standards and a new manifestation of vitality.[52] Shortly thereafter, some critics arose to challenge its status as a revolutionary movement. These critics said that the science fictionNew Wave of the 1960s was much more innovative as far as narrative techniques and styles were concerned.[53] WhileNeuromancer's narrator may have had an unusual "voice" for science fiction, much older examples can be found: Gibson's narrative voice, for example, resembles that of an updatedRaymond Chandler, as in his novelThe Big Sleep (1939).[52]
Science-fiction writerDavid Brin describes cyberpunk as "the finest free promotion campaign ever waged on behalf of science fiction". It may not have attracted the "real punks", but it did ensnare many new readers, and it provided the sort of movement that postmodern literary critics found alluring. Cyberpunk made science fiction more attractive to academics, argues Brin; in addition, it made science fiction more profitable toHollywood and to the visual arts generally. Although the "self-important rhetoric and whines of persecution" on the part of cyberpunk fans were irritating at worst and humorous at best, Brin declares that the "rebels did shake things up. We owe them a debt."[59]
Cyberpunk further inspired many later writers to incorporate cyberpunk ideas into their own works,[citation needed] such asGeorge Alec Effinger'sWhen Gravity Fails.Wired magazine, created by Louis Rossetto and Jane Metcalfe, mixes new technology, art, literature, and current topics in order to interest today's cyberpunk fans, whichPaula Yoo claims "proves that hardcore hackers, multimedia junkies, cyberpunks and cellular freaks are poised to take over the world".[61]
Metropolis, one of the earliest cyberpunk films ever made.[62][63]
The filmBlade Runner (1982) is set in 2019 in a dystopian future in which manufactured beings calledreplicants are slaves used on space colonies and are legal prey on Earth to various bounty hunters who "retire" (kill) them. AlthoughBlade Runner was largely unsuccessful in its first theatrical release, it found a viewership in the home video market and became acult film.[64] Since the movie omits the religious and mythical elements of Dick's original novel (e.g. empathy boxes and Wilbur Mercer), it falls more strictly within the cyberpunk genre than the novel does. William Gibson later revealed that upon first viewing the film, he was surprised at how the look of this film matched his vision forNeuromancer, a book he was then working on. The film's tone has since been the staple of many cyberpunk movies, such asThe Matrix trilogy (1999–2003), which uses a wide variety of cyberpunk elements.[65] A sequel toBlade Runner was released in 2017.
The TV seriesMax Headroom (1987) is an iconic cyberpunk work, taking place in a futuristic dystopia ruled by an oligarchy of television networks. Computer hacking played a central role in many of the story lines.Max Headroom has been called "the first cyberpunk television series".[4]
The number of films in the genre has grown steadily sinceBlade Runner. Several of Philip K. Dick's works have been adapted to the silver screen. The filmsJohnny Mnemonic[5] (1995) andNew Rose Hotel[6][7] (1998), both based on short stories by William Gibson, flopped commercially and critically. Other cyberpunk films includeRoboCop (1987),Total Recall (1990),Hardware (1990),The Lawnmower Man (1992),12 Monkeys (1995),Hackers (1995), andStrange Days (1995). Some cyberpunk films have been described astech-noir, a hybrid genre combiningneo-noir and science fiction or cyberpunk.
According toPaul Gravett, whenAkira began to be published, cyberpunk literature had not yet been translated into Japanese, Otomo has distinct inspirations such asMitsuteru Yokoyama's manga seriesTetsujin 28-go (1956–1966) andMoebius.[67]
In contrast to Western cyberpunk which has roots in New Wave science fiction literature, Japanese cyberpunk has roots inunderground music culture, specifically the Japanesepunk subculture that arose from theJapanese punk music scene in the 1970s. The filmmakerSogo Ishii introduced this subculture toJapanese cinema with thepunk filmPanic High School (1978) and the punkbiker filmCrazy Thunder Road (1980), both portraying the rebellion and anarchy associated with punk, and the latter featuring a punkbiker gang aesthetic. Ishii's punk films paved the way for Otomo's seminal cyberpunk workAkira.[68]
Cyberpunk themes are widely visible in anime and manga. InJapan, wherecosplay is popular and not only teenagers display such fashion styles, cyberpunk has been accepted and its influence is widespread. William Gibson'sNeuromancer, whose influence dominated the early cyberpunk movement, was also set inChiba, one of Japan's largest industrial areas, although at the time of writing the novel Gibson did not know the location of Chiba and had no idea how perfectly it fit his vision in some ways. The exposure to cyberpunk ideas and fiction in the 1980s has allowed it to seep into the Japanese culture.
Cyberpunk anime and manga draw upon a futuristic vision which has elements in common with Western science fiction and therefore have received wide international acceptance outside Japan. "The conceptualization involved in cyberpunk is more of forging ahead, looking at the new global culture. It is a culture that does not exist right now, so the Japanese concept of a cyberpunk future, seems just as valid as a Western one, especially as Western cyberpunk often incorporates many Japanese elements."[69] William Gibson is now a frequent visitor to Japan, and he came to see that many of his visions of Japan have become a reality:
Modern Japan simply was cyberpunk. TheJapanese themselves knew it and delighted in it. I remember my first glimpse ofShibuya, when one of the young Tokyo journalists who had taken me there, his face drenched with the light of a thousand media-suns—all that towering, animated crawl of commercial information—said, "You see? You see? It isBlade Runner town." And it was. It so evidently was.[37]
Ghost in the Shell (1995) influenced a number of prominent filmmakers, most notablythe Wachowskis inThe Matrix (1999) and its sequels.[82]The Matrix series took several concepts from the film, including theMatrix digital rain, which was inspired by the opening credits ofGhost in the Shell and a sushi magazine the wife of the senior designer of the animation, Simon Witheley, had in the kitchen at the time,[83] and the way characters access the Matrix through holes in the back of their necks.[84] Other parallels have been drawn toJames Cameron'sAvatar,Steven Spielberg'sA.I. Artificial Intelligence, andJonathan Mostow'sSurrogates.[84] James Cameron citedGhost in the Shell as a source of inspiration,[85] citing it as an influence onAvatar.[86]
In 1975, artistMoebius collaborated with writerDan O'Bannon on a story calledThe Long Tomorrow, published in the French magazineMétal Hurlant. One of the first works featuring elements now seen as exemplifying cyberpunk, it combined influences fromfilm noir andhardboiled crime fiction with a distant sci-fi environment.[89] AuthorWilliam Gibson stated that Moebius' artwork for the series, along with other visuals fromMétal Hurlant, strongly influenced his 1984 novelNeuromancer.[90] The series had a far-reaching impact in the cyberpunk genre,[91] being cited as an influence onRidley Scott'sAlien (1979) andBlade Runner.[92]
Moebius expanded uponThe Long Tomorrow's aesthetic withThe Incal, a graphic novel collaboration withAlejandro Jodorowsky published from 1980 to 1988. The story centers around the exploits of adetective named John Difool in various science fiction settings, and while not confined to the tropes of cyberpunk, it features many elements of the genre.[93] Moebius was one of the designers ofTron (1982), a movie that shows a world inside a computer.[94]
Concurrently with many other foundational cyberpunk works,DC Comics publishedFrank Miller's six-issue miniseriesRōnin from 1983 to 1984. The series, incorporating aspects ofSamurai culture, martial arts films and manga, is set in a dystopian near-futureNew York. It explores the link between an ancient Japanese warrior and the apocalyptic, crumbling cityscape he finds himself in. The comic also bears several similarities toAkira,[95] with highly powerfultelepaths playing central roles, as well as sharing many key visuals.[96]
Rōnin would go on to influence many later works, includingSamurai Jack[97] and theTeenage Mutant Ninja Turtles,[98] as well as video games such asCyberpunk 2077.[99] Two years later, Miller himself would incorporate several toned-down elements ofRōnin into his acclaimed 1986 miniseriesThe Dark Knight Returns, in which a retired Bruce Wayne once again takes up the mantle ofBatman in a Gotham that is increasingly becoming more dystopian.[100]
Paul Pope'sBatman: Year 100, published in 2006, also exhibits several traits typical of cyberpunk fiction, such as a rebel protagonist opposing a future authoritarian state, and a distinctretrofuturist aesthetic that makes callbacks to bothThe Dark Knight Returns and Batman's original appearances in the 1940s.[101]
In 1990, in a convergence of cyberpunk art and reality, theUnited States Secret Service raided Steve Jackson Games's headquarters and confiscated all their computers. Officials denied that the target had been theGURPS Cyberpunk sourcebook, but Jackson later wrote that he and his colleagues "were never able to secure the return of the complete manuscript; [...] The Secret Service at first flatly refused to return anything – then agreed to let us copy files, but when we got to their office, restricted us to one set of out-of-date files – then agreed to make copies for us, but said "tomorrow" every day from March 4 to March 26. On March 26 we received a set of disks which purported to be our files, but the material was late, incomplete and well-nigh useless."[106] Steve Jackson Games won a lawsuit against the Secret Service, aided by the newElectronic Frontier Foundation. This event has achieved a sort of notoriety, which has extended to the book itself as well. All published editions ofGURPS Cyberpunk have a tagline on the front cover, which reads "The book that was seized by the U.S. Secret Service!" Inside, the book provides a summary of the raid and its aftermath.
Much of the industrial/dance heavy "Cyberpunk"—recorded inBilly Idol's Macintosh-run studio—revolves around Idol's theme of the common man rising up to fight against a faceless, soulless, corporate world.
Invariably the origin of cyberpunk music lies in thesynthesizer-heavy scores of cyberpunk films such asEscape from New York (1981) andBlade Runner (1982).[108] Some musicians and acts have been classified as cyberpunk due to their aesthetic style and musical content. Often dealing with dystopian visions of the future orbiomechanical themes, some fit more squarely in the category than others. Bands whose music has been classified as cyberpunk includePsydoll,[109]Front Line Assembly,[110]Clock DVA,[111]Angelspit[112] andSigue Sigue Sputnik.[113]
Some musicians not normally associated with cyberpunk have at times been inspired to create concept albums exploring such themes. Albums such as the British musician and songwriterGary Numan'sReplicas,The Pleasure Principle andTelekon were heavily inspired by the works of Philip K. Dick.Kraftwerk'sThe Man-Machine andComputer World albums both explored the theme of humanity becoming dependent on technology.Nine Inch Nails' concept albumYear Zero also fits into this category.Fear Factory concept albums are heavily based upon future dystopia, cybernetics, clash between man and machines, virtual worlds.
Billy Idol'sCyberpunk drew heavily from cyberpunk literature and thecyberdelic counter culture in its creation.1. Outside, a cyberpunk narrative fueled concept album byDavid Bowie, was warmly met by critics upon its release in 1995. Many musicians have also taken inspiration from specific cyberpunk works or authors, includingSonic Youth, whose albumsSister andDaydream Nation take influence from the works of Philip K. Dick and William Gibson respectively.Madonna's 2001Drowned World Tour opened with a cyberpunk section, where costumes, asethetics and stage props were used to accentuate the dystopian nature of the theatrical concert.[citation needed]Lady Gaga used a cyberpunk-persona and visual style for her sixth studio albumChromatica (2020).[114][115]
Vaporwave andsynthwave are also influenced by cyberpunk. The former has been inspired by one of the messages of cyberpunk and is interpreted as a dystopian[116] critique ofcapitalism[117] in the vein of cyberpunk and the latter is more surface-level, inspired only by the aesthetic of cyberpunk as a nostalgicretrofuturistic revival of aspects of cyberpunk's origins.
Cybergoth is a fashion and dance subculture which draws its inspiration from cyberpunk fiction, as well asrave andGothic subcultures. In addition, a distinct cyberpunk fashion of its own has emerged in recent years[when?] which rejects the raver and goth influences ofcybergoth, and draws inspiration from urban street fashion, "post apocalypse", functional clothing, high tech sports wear, tactical uniform and multifunction. This fashion goes by names like "tech wear", "goth ninja" or "tech ninja".[citation needed]
TheKowloon Walled City inHong Kong, demolished in 1994, is often referenced as the model cyberpunk/dystopian slum as, given its poor living conditions at the time coupled with the city's political, physical, and economic isolation has caused many in academia to be fascinated by the ingenuity of its spawning.[119]
As a wider variety of writers began to work with cyberpunk concepts, new subgenres of science fiction emerged, some of which could be considered as playing off the cyberpunk label, others which could be considered as legitimate explorations into newer territory. These focused on technology and its social effects in different ways. One prominent subgenre is "steampunk," which is set in analternate historyVictorian era that combines anachronistic technology with cyberpunk's bleakfilm noir world view. The term was originally coined around 1987 as a joke to describe some of the novels ofTim Powers,James P. Blaylock, andK.W. Jeter, but by the time Gibson and Sterling entered the subgenre with theircollaborative novelThe Difference Engine the term was being used earnestly as well.[120]
Another subgenre is "biopunk" (cyberpunk themes dominated bybiotechnology) from the early 1990s, a derivative style building on biotechnology rather than informational technology. In these stories, people are changed in some way not by mechanical means, but bygenetic manipulation.
In the United States, the term "Cyberpunk" is a registered trademark owned byCD Projekt SA who obtained it from the previous ownerR. Talsorian Games Inc. who originally registered it for itstabletop role-playing game.[121] R. Talsorian Games currently used the trademark under license from CD Projekt SA for the tabletop role-playing game.[122]
Within the European Union, the "Cyberpunk" trademark is owned by two parties: CD Projekt SA for "games and online gaming services"[123] (particularly for thevideo game adaptation of the former) and bySony Music for use outside games.[124]
^Sterling, Bruce (1986). "Preface".Burning Chrome by William Gibson. Harper Collins. p. xiv.
^Thomas Michaud, "Science fiction and politics: Cyberpunk science fiction as political philosophy", pp. 65–77 inHassler, Donald M. (2008).New Boundaries in Political Science Fiction.University of South Carolina Press.ISBN978-1-57003-736-8. See pp. 75–76.
^"Bibliography for GURPS Cyberpunk".sjgames.com. Steve Jackson Games. Retrieved13 July 2019.The world of the British Judge Dredd is quintessentially cyberpunk...
^abHague, Angela (2002).Teleparody: Predicting/preventing the TV Discourse of Tomorrow. London New York: Wallflower Press. p. 68.ISBN1-903364-39-6.OCLC50497381.
^Parker, John R. (20 August 2011)."'New Worlds': One of the Most Influential Sci-Fi Magazines Returns This Fall".ComicsAlliance. Retrieved2022-12-29.Ballard's amazing kink-think-pieces on the intrusion of technology and media — "The Atrocity Exhibition", "Notes Towards a Mental Breakdown", "The Assassination of John Fitzgerald Kennedy Considered as a Downhill Motor Race" (collected with others asThe Atrocity Exhibition with illustrations by Phoebe Gloeckner) — paved the way for cyberpunk. Brian Aldiss practically populated his own subgenre with quirky epics likeAcid Head War, a messianic tale of freestyle narrative set in a post-war Europe in which hallucinogenic drugs had affected entire populations, andReport on Probability A, an experimental story about the observations of three characters named G, S, and C.
^McCaffery, Larry (1991).Storming the Reality Studio : a Casebook of Cyberpunk & Postmodern Science Fiction. Duke University Press. pp. 20, 208, 216, 264, 279, 331.ISBN978-0-8223-9822-6.OCLC972009012.
^David, Brin (1999).The Transparent Society : Will Technology Force Us to Choose Between Privacy and Freedom?. Basic Books.ISBN978-0-465-02790-3.OCLC798534246.
^Clarke, Arthur C. (1956). "The Last Question".Science Fiction Quarterly.
^Flanagan, Mary; Booth, Austin (2002).Reload: Rethinking Women + Cyberculture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 7–8.ISBN978-0-262-06227-5.
^Lavigne, Carlen (2013).Cyberpunk Women, Feminism and Science Fiction: A Critical Study. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. p. 51.ISBN978-0-7864-6653-5.
^Barnett, P. Chad. "Reviving cyberpunk:(Re) Constructing the subject and mapping cyberspace in the Wachowski brothers' film The Matrix." Extrapolation 41.4 (2000): 359-374.
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