Curia (pl.: curiae) inancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally probably had wider powers,[1] they came to meet for only a few purposes by the end of theRepublic: to confirm the election ofmagistrates with imperium, to witness the installation ofpriests, the making ofwills, and to carry out certainadoptions.
The term is more broadly used to designate anassembly,council, orcourt, in which public, official, or religious issues are discussed and decided. Lesser curiae existed for other purposes. The wordcuria also came to denote the places of assembly, especially of thesenate. Similar institutions existed in other towns and cities of Italy.
In medieval times, a king's council was often referred to as a curia. Today, the most famous curia is theCuria of theRoman Catholic Church, which assists the Roman Pontiff in thehierarchical government of the Church.[2]
The wordcuria is thought to derive fromOld Latincoviria, meaning 'a gathering of men' (co-, 'together' =vir, 'man').[3] In this sense, any assembly, public or private, could be called acuria. In addition to the Roman curiae, voting assemblies known as curiae existed in other towns ofLatium, and similar institutions existed in other parts of Italy. During the republic, local curiae were established in Italian and provincialmunicipia andcoloniae. Inimperial times, local magistrates were often elected by municipal senates, which also came to be known as curiae. By extension, the wordcuria came to mean not just a gathering, but also the place where an assembly would gather, such as a meeting house.[4]
In Roman times,curia had two principal meanings. Originally it applied to the wards of thecomitia curiata. However, over time the name became applied to the senate house, which in its various incarnations housed meetings of the Roman senate from the time of thekings until the beginning of the seventh century AD.
The most important curiae at Rome were the 30 that together made up the comitia curiata. Traditionally ascribed to the kings, each of the threetribes established byRomulus, theRamnes, Tities, andLuceres, was divided into ten curiae. In theory, eachgens (family, clan) belonged to a particular curia, although whether this was strictly observed throughout Roman history is uncertain.[4][5]
Each curia had a distinct name, said to have been derived from the names of some of theSabine women abducted by the Romans in the time of Romulus. However, some of the curiae evidently derived their names from particular districts or eponymous heroes.[5] The curiae were probably established geographically, representing specific neighborhoods in Rome, for which reasoncuria is sometimes translated as 'ward'.[4] Only a few of the names of the 30 curiae have been preserved, includingAcculeia, Calabra, Faucia, Foriensis, Rapta, Veliensis, Tifata, andTitia.[6][5]
The assertion that theplebeians were not members of the curiae, or that only the dependents (clientes) of thepatricians were admitted, and not entitled to vote, is expressly contradicted byDionysius.[7] This argument is also refuted byMommsen.[8]
Each curia had its ownsacra, in which its members, known ascuriales, worshipped the gods of the state and other deities specific to the curia, with their own rites and ceremonies.[9] Each curia had a meeting site and place of worship, named after the curia.[4] Originally, this may have been a simple altar, then asacellum, and finally a meeting house.[5]
The curia was presided over by acurio (pl.:curiones), who was always at least 50 years old, and was elected for life.[4] Thecurio undertook the religious affairs of the curia. He was assisted by another priest, known as theflamen curialis.[5] When the 30 curiae gathered to make up thecomitia curiata, they were presided over by acurio maximus, who until 209 BC was always a patrician.[4][5] Originally, thecurio maximus was probably elected by thecuriones, but in later times by the people themselves.[5] Each curia was attended by onelictor; an assembly of thecomitia curiata was attended by thirty lictors.[5][10]
Thecomitia curiata voted to confirm the election of magistrates by passing a law called thelex curiata de imperio. It also witnessed the installation of priests, and adoptions, and the making of wills. ThePontifex Maximus may have presided over these ceremonies.[4] The assembly probably possessed much greater authority before the establishment of thecomitia centuriata, which gradually assumed many of the curiate assembly's original functions.[4]
Since theRoman Kingdom, the meeting-house of the Roman senate was known as the curia. The original meeting place was said to have been atemple built on the spot where the Romans and Sabines laid down their arms during the reign of Romulus (traditionally reigned 753–717 BC). The institution of the senate was always ascribed to Romulus; although the first senate was said to comprise 100 members, the earliest number which can be called certain is 300, probably connected with the three tribes and 30 curiae also attributed to Romulus.[4]
After the original temple was destroyed by fire, it was replaced by a new meeting house byTullus Hostilius, the thirdKing of Rome (traditionally reigned 673–642 BC). TheCuria Hostilia stood on the north end of theComitium, where thecomitia curiata and other Roman assemblies met, and was oriented along the fourcardinal points. After more than 500 years of service, the building was restored and enlarged by thedictatorLucius Cornelius Sulla in 80 BC. Sulla had doubled the senate's membership from 300 to 600, necessitating a larger building, which retained the original orientation of theCuria Hostilia, but extended further south into the comitium. In 52 BC, following the murder ofPublius Clodius Pulcher, hisclientes set fire to the senate house, which was rebuilt byFaustus Cornelius Sulla, son of the dictator. Following this reconstruction, the building came to be called theCuria Cornelia.[4]
A generation after Sulla enlarged the senate from 300 members to 600,Julius Caesar increased its membership to 900, necessitating the construction of a larger meeting house. Shortly before his death in 44 BC, Caesar began the construction of a new building, which became known as theCuria Julia. This structure covered most of thecomitium, and abandoned the original orientation of the previous curiae, pointing slightly northwest. The building featured a large central hall with a daïs for magistrates, and marble benches on one side. There was also a record office on one side. The building was completed by Caesar's grandnephew,Octavian, the future emperor Augustus, in 29 BC, although he reduced the senate itself to its former number of 600. TheCuria Cornelia was demolished, but the precise date is not known.[4]
In AD 94, theCuria Julia was rebuilt along Caesar's original plan by the emperorDomitian, who also restored the former orientation of theCuria Hostilia. The building was damaged by fire during the reign ofCarinus in 283, and again restored under his successor,Diocletian.[4] The Roman Senate is last mentioned in AD 600. In 630,Pope Honorius I transformed the senate house into the church ofSant'Adriano al Foro, preserving the structure at its full height. In 1923, the church and an adjacent convent were bought by the Italian government. The building was further restored from 1935 to 1937, removing various medieval additions, to reveal the original Roman architecture.[4]
TheCuriae Veteres was the earliest sanctuary of the thirty curiae. It is discussed by bothVarro and byTacitus, who mentions it as one point of thePalatinepomerium ofRoma quadrata.[11] It is probable that this shrine was located at the northeast corner of thePalatine Hill. Its remains have likely been identified in excavations carried out byClementina Panella.[12] As the Republic continued, the curiae grew too large to meet conveniently at theCuriae Veteres, and a new meeting place, theCuriae Novae, was constructed. A few of the curiae continued to meet at theCuriae Veteres due to specific religious obligations.[13][14]
In the Roman Empire a town council was known as a curia, or sometimes anordo, orboule. The existence of such a governing body was the mark of an independent city. Municipal curiae were co-optive, and their members, thedecurions, sat for life. Their numbers varied greatly according to the size of the city. In the Western Empire, one hundred seems to have been a common number, but in the East five hundred was customary, on the model of the Athenian Boule. However, by the fourth century, curial duties had become onerous, and it was difficult to fill all the posts; often candidates had to be nominated. The emperorConstantine exempted Christians from serving in the curiae, which led to many rich pagans claiming to be priests in order to escape these duties.[15]
The concept of the curia as a governing body, or the court where such a body met, carried on into medieval times, both as a secular institution, and in the church.
In medieval times, a king's court was frequently known as thecuria regis, consisting of the king's chief magnates and councilors. In England, thecuria regis gradually developed intoParliament. In France, thecuria regis orConseil du Roi developed in the twelfth century, with the term gradually becoming applied to a judicial body, and falling out of use by the fourteenth century.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the administrative body of theHoly See is known as theRoman Curia. It is through this Curia that theRoman Pontiff conducts the business of the Church as a whole.[2]
Among olderreligious orders, the governing council of theSuperior General or Regional Superior and his or her assistants is referred to their Curia.
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TheCourt of Justice of the European Union uses "CURIA" (in roman script) in its official emblem.
The termcuria may refer to separate electoral colleges in a system ofreserved political positions (reserved seats), e.g. during theBritish mandate of Palestine at the third election (1931) of theAsefat HaNivharim there were three curiae, for theAshkenazi Jews, theSephardi Jews and for theYemeni Jews.[16][17][18][19]
In the United States Supreme Court an interested third party to a case may file a brief as anamicus curiae.[20]
Under theFundamental Law adopted in 2011,Hungary's supreme court is called theCuria.
TheFederal Palace of Switzerland, the seat of theSwiss Confederation, bears the inscriptionCuria Confœderationis Helveticæ.
