This articlemay betoo long to read and navigate comfortably. Considersplitting content into sub-articles,condensing it, or addingsubheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article'stalk page.(September 2024)

This articlemay incorporate text from alarge language model. It may includehallucinated information,copyright violations, claims notverified in cited sources,original research, orfictitious references. Any such material should beremoved, and content with anunencyclopedic tone should be rewritten.(November 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Theculture of the United Kingdom is influenced by itscombined nations' history, its interaction with the cultures ofEurope, the individual diverse cultures ofEngland,Wales,Scotland andNorthern Ireland, and the impact of theBritish Empire. The culture of the United Kingdom may also colloquially be referred to asBritish culture. Although British culture is a distinct entity, the individualcultures of England,Scotland,Wales andNorthern Ireland are diverse. There have been varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness between these four cultures.^[1]British literature is particularly esteemed. Themodern novel was developed in Britain, and playwrights, poets, and authors are among its most prominent cultural figures.^[2] Britain has also made notable contributions totheatre,music,mainstream andindependent cinema,art,architecture andtelevision. The UK is also the home of theChurch of England,Church of Scotland,Church in Wales, thestate church andmother church of theAnglican Communion, the third-largest Christian denomination. Britain contains some of the world's oldest universities, has made many contributions tophilosophy,science,technology andmedicine, and is the birthplace of many prominentscientists andinventions. TheIndustrial Revolution began in the UK and had a profound effect onsocio-economic and cultural conditions around the world.

British culture has been influenced by historical and modern migration, the historical invasions of Great Britain, and the British Empire. As aresult of the British Empire, significantBritish influence can be observed in the language, law, culture and institutions of its former colonies, most of which are members of theCommonwealth of Nations. A subset of these states form theAnglosphere, and are among Britain's closest allies.^[3][4] British colonies and dominions influenced British culture in turn, particularlyBritish cuisine.^[5]

Sport is an important part of British culture, and numerous sports originated in their organised, modern form in the country includingcricket,football,boxing,tennis andrugby.^[6] The UK has been described as a "cultural superpower",^[7][8] andLondon has been described as aworld cultural capital.^[9][10] A global opinion poll for theBBC saw the UK ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014.^[11][12]

Throughout its history, the culture of Great Britain has primarily consisted of the separate native traditions of England, Scotland and Wales. With regard to cultural influences, prior to theexpansion of the British Empire, the island had been most notably influenced byFrench culture (via theNormans),Scandinavian culture (via theVikings) andItalian culture (via theRomans).

The arrival ofCeltic andGermanic tribes influenced Britain's early development.^[13][14] The Celtic peoples introduced unique languages, traditions, and social structures. Subsequently, the migrations of Germanic tribes, such as theAnglo-Saxons, further influenced Britain's cultural landscape. The ancientRoman occupation of Britain, lasting almost 400 years, also impacted the linguistic and cultural identity of Great Britain.^[15]

Following the expansion of the British Empire, England, Scotland and Wales absorbed different peoples from around the world, and, post-World War II, Britain developed a more diverse cultural landscape through higher levels of immigration. Furthermore, following theFall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and EU enlargement in 2004 and 2007, the UK experienced a significant rise in immigration fromEastern Europe. Today, the UK has a sizable immigrant population, and encompasses the cultures of British people from various backgrounds, withSouth Asian,Continental European,African andCaribbean descent being most prevalent.^[16]

First spoken inearly medieval England, theEnglish language is thede factoofficial language of the UK, and is spoken monolingually by an estimated 95% of theBritish population.^[17][a] Seven other languages are recognised by the British Government under theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages –Welsh,Scottish Gaelic,Scots,Cornish,Irish,Ulster Scots, andBritish Sign Language.

In Wales, all pupils at state schools must either be taught through the medium of Welsh or study it as an additional language until age 16, and theWelsh Language Act 1993 and theGovernment of Wales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English languages should be treated equally in the public sector, so far as is reasonable and practicable. Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. TheGaelic Language (Scotland) Act, passed by theScottish Parliament in 2005, recognised Gaelic as an official language of Scotland and required the creation of a national plan for Gaelic to provide strategic direction for the development of the Gaelic language.^[b] The Cornish language is arevived language that became extinct as a first language inCornwall in the late 18th century.

Dialects and regional accents vary heavily amongst the fourcountries of the United Kingdom, as well as within the countries themselves. This is partially the result of the long history of immigration to the UK, for exampleNorthern English dialects contain many words with Old Norse roots.^[18]Scottish English,Welsh English, andHiberno-Irish are varieties of English distinct from bothEnglish English and the native languages of those countries.Received Pronunciation is theStandard English accent in England and Wales, while in ScotlandScottish Standard English is a distinct dialect. Although these accents have ahigh social prestige, since the 1960s a greater permissiveness toward regional English varieties has taken hold in education.^[19]

The great variety of British accents is often noted, with nearby regions often having highly distinct dialects and accents, for example there are large differences betweenScouse andMancunian despite Liverpool and Manchester being only 35 miles (56 km) apart.^[20][21] Dialectal English is often found in literature, for exampleEmily Brontë's novelWuthering Heights contains Yorkshire dialect.^[22]

The United Kingdom inherited the literary traditions of England, Scotland and Wales. These includeArthurian literature and its Welsh origins, Norse-influencedOld English literature, the works of English authorsGeoffrey Chaucer andWilliam Shakespeare, and Scots works such asJohn Barbour'sThe Brus.^[23]

The early 18th century period of British literature is known as theAugustan Age and included the development of the novel.Daniel Defoe'sRobinson Crusoe^[25] (1719) andMoll Flanders (1722)^[26][27] are often seen as the first English novels. Alongside these works,poetry also flourished, with notable examples such asThe Rape of the Lock (1712) byAlexander Pope, a mock-heroic poem that satirized the social mores of the time.^[28] However, the development of the novel took place in a wider literary context that included the rise of prose satires – which reached a high point withGulliver's Travels (1729) byAnglo-Irish writerJonathan Swift,^[29] and earlier foreign works like theSpanishDon Quixote.^[30] Other novels by Jonathan Swift includeA Tale of a Tub (1704),An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity (1712), andA Modest Proposal (1729).^[29] With the publishing of these books, he gained literary fame and formed lifelong friendships with Alexander Pope,John Gay, andJohn Arbuthnot, who, with Swift, created theMartinus Scriblerus Club in 1713. Other novels made at this time are:Tom Jones (1749), byHenry Fielding;Pamela (1740) andClarissa (1748), bySamuel Richardson;Laurence Sterne –The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759–1767).Pamela is hailed as one of the first true novels in English literature whileClarissa is regarded as Richardson's magnum opus and one of the greatest novels in the English language. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman is an experimental novel.

Also linked to the Augustan period isSamuel Johnson'sA Dictionary of the English Language. Published in 1755, it was viewed as the pre-eminentBritish Dictionary until the completion of theOxford English Dictionary 150 years later. Each word defined in detail, with descriptions of their various uses and numerous literary quotes as illustrations. This was the first dictionary of its kind, containing 40,000 words and nearly 114,000 quotes packed together with Johnson's personal touch.^[31][32] It is among the most influentialdictionaries, or among most authoritative, in the history of theEnglish language and considered to be a monumental achievement inlexicography. A group of London booksellers contracted Johnson to write a dictionary for the sum of 1,500guineas (£1,575), equivalent to about £310,000 in 2023.^[33] Johnson took seven years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. A warm reception greeted Johnson's Dictionary as it was the first dictionary that could be read with pleasure. The definitions full of wit and depth of thought supported by passages from beloved poets and philosophers, meant a reader could be content spending an evening poring over its pages. Johnson's choice of structure and format has certainly shaped future English dictionaries and lexicons and the role they play in language development.

Richard Steele, another famous author known forcomedies andpamphlets during the Augustan Period, began his literary career with "The Christian Hero" (1701), a moral pamphlet that was criticized due to his personal lifestyle, followed by the successful comedyThe Funeral later that year. In 1703, he wroteThe Lying Lover, an early sentimental comedy that failed on stage. In 1705, he collaborated withJoseph Addison onThe Tender Husband and contributed the prologue toJohn Vanbrugh'sThe Mistake. Steele's major breakthrough came in 1709 with the creation ofThe Tatler, a tri-weeklyperiodical in which he wrote the majority of the essays under the pseudonymIsaac Bickerstaff, aiming to expose societal vices and promote simplicity. Despite its success,The Tatler was shut down in 1711 due to political pressure, prompting Steele and Addison to co-foundThe Spectator in 1711 andThe Guardian in 1713, solidifying Steele's role as a leading figure in early British journalism.^[34]

TheRomantic Period was marked by a revival ofpoetry and a focus on emotion, nature, and individualism, responding to the growing rationalism of the Enlightenment. This era gave rise to many literary works that explored the tension between reason and imagination.William Wordsworth andSamuel Taylor Coleridge'sLyrical Ballads (1798)^[35] is considered a landmark collection, emphasizing the beauty of nature and the primacy of emotion, and marking the official start of theRomantic Movement.Mary Shelley'sFrankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818), one of the earliest science fiction novels, delves into themes of creation, responsibility, and the consequences of unchecked scientific ambition, framed within Gothic conventions.Jane Austen’sPride and Prejudice (1813) offered a brilliant social satire, critiquing class structures and the courtship rituals ofRegency England, and remains one of the most beloved novels inBritish Literature.Lord Byron'sDon Juan (1819–1824) is a satirical epic poem that details the adventures of the legendary lover, displaying Byron's wit, irony, and irreverence toward societal norms.

Sir Walter Scott'sWaverley (1814), widely considered the first historical novel, vividly recreates theJacobite Rebellion of 1745, cementing Scott's place as a major figure in British literature. William Blake'sSongs of Innocence and of Experience (1794) blends art and poetry to explore themes of innocence, experience, and societal corruption, providing a unique vision of the Romantic spirit. Percy Bysshe Shelley’sPrometheus Unbound (1820), a lyrical drama, explores themes of rebellion, tyranny, and human freedom, standing as one of his most radical and imaginative works.Robert Burns, the famed Scottish poet, revived interest in Scots literature with works such asAuld Lang Syne, which celebrated the vernacular tradition. Lastly,Mary Wollstonecraft's "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) stands as one of the earliest and most influential works of feminist philosophy, advocating for women's education and equal rights in a male-dominated society.

Although primarily associated with theVictorian Era,Lewis Carroll'sAlice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865) emerged from the later part of this broader Romantic tradition, blending imaginative fantasy with playful wordplay. This whimsical novel follows young Alice's journey through a dreamlike world populated by peculiar characters, exploring themes of logic, absurdity, and identity.Alice's Adventures in Wonderland remains a pioneering work of literary nonsense, captivating readers with its inventive narrative and surreal exploration of the boundaries between reality and imagination.

The lateGeorgian Era andVictorian era saw a renewed focus on the novel. A key theme of these novels was social commentary. Early in the periodJane Austen satirised the lifestyle of the gentry and nobility, while the later novels ofCharles Dickens often used humour and keen observations to criticise poverty and social stratification. One of his novels,Oliver Twist, describesVictorian Times and the sordid lives of criminals and exposes the cruel treatment of the many orphans inLondon. Another novel by Charles Dickens,Great Expectations (1861), is abildungsroman that follows the life ofPip, an orphan navigating ambition, love, and personal growth while critiquing social mobility and class divisions.Charlotte Brontë'sJane Eyre (1847) blendsGothic romance with social commentary, focusing on a young woman's quest for independence against the rigid structures ofVictorian society. The threeBrontë sisters andGeorge Eliot commented onNorthern England and theMidlands respectively, though all four women wrote under male pen names during their lifetimes, partly to deflect anti-feminist criticism. Nevertheless, openly female authors achieved considerable success in the period, such as the predominantly religious poems ofElizabeth Barrett Browning andChristina Rossetti.George Eliot'sMiddlemarch (1871–1872), often regarded as one of the greatest English novels, explores themes of politics, marriage, and ambition in the setting of a provincial English town.

Elizabeth Gaskell'sNorth and South (1854–1855) contrasts the industrial north with the agricultural south, addressing issues such as class conflict, industrialization, and gender roles.Thomas Hardy'sTess of the d’Urbervilles (1891) offers a tragic critique of Victorian society's treatment of women, sexuality, and class, whileOscar Wilde'sThe Picture of Dorian Gray (1890) examines themes of aestheticism, morality, and vanity in a Gothic narrative where the protagonist's portrait ages as his soul corrupts. InRobert Louis Stevenson'sThe Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886), the novella delves into themes of duality, identity, and morality through the split personality of its protagonist.Arthur Conan Doyle'sThe Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1892), a group of short stories, which popularised the detective genre and introduced one of literature's most iconic characters: Sherlock Holmes.

Rudyard Kipling's literature exemplifies theBritish Empire's influence onBritish literature through his works that often reflect the ethos ofimperialism andcolonialism. His novelsThe Jungle Book, which is considered to be classic piece of literature, andThe Man Who Would Be King are both set inBritish India, showcasing the cultural and political impact of British rule in the region. His poem 'If—' famously captures the concept of the "stiff upper lip," a British ideal of stoicism and self-discipline. Kipling's works, while celebrated for their literary qualities, remain controversial for their imperialist themes.

World War I gave rise to Britishwar poets and writers such asWilfred Owen,Siegfried Sassoon, andRupert Brooke, who wrote (oftenparadoxically) of their expectations of war, and their experiences in thetrenches. Initially idealistic and patriotic in tone, as the war progressed the tone of the movement became increasingly sombre and pacifistic.^[38] The beginning of the twentieth century also saw theCeltic Revival stimulate a new appreciation of traditionalIrish literature, while theScottish Renaissance brought modernism toScottish literature as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots. The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and it remains today the dominant English literary form.

The contemporary British literary scene is marked by awards such as theBooker Prize, created in 1969, and festivals including the WelshHay Festival, held since 1988. The prominent status of children's literature in the UK was demonstrated in theopening ceremony of theLondon 2012 Olympic Games, which contained sequence dedicated to prominent children's literary characters.^[39] In 2003 the BBC carried out a British survey entitledThe Big Read in order to find the "nation's best-loved novel", with works by English novelistsJ. R. R. Tolkien,Jane Austen,Philip Pullman,Douglas Adams andJ. K. Rowling making up the top five on the list.^[40] More than 75% of the British public read at least one book annually.^[41] The UK is also among the largest publishers of books. As of 2017^[update], six firms in the United Kingdom rank among the world's biggest publishers of books in terms of revenue:Bloomsbury,Cambridge University Press,Informa,Oxford University Press,Pearson, andRELX Group.^[42]

From its formation in 1707 the United Kingdom has had a vibrant tradition of theatre, much of it inherited from England, Scotland and Wales. TheUnion of the Crowns coincided with the decline of highbrow and provocativeRestoration comedy in favour ofsentimental comedy, domestictragedy such as George Lillo'sThe London Merchant (1731), and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera. Popular entertainment became more important in this period than ever before, with fair-booth burlesque and mixed forms that are the ancestors of the Englishmusic hall. These forms flourished at the expense of other forms of English drama, which went into a long period of decline. In Scotland the opposite occurred, with the emergence of specifically Scottish plays includingJohn Home'sDouglas and the works ofWalter Scott, which included original plays as well as adaptations of hisWaverley novels.The late 19th century saw revival of English theatre with arrival of IrishmenGeorge Bernard Shaw andOscar Wilde, who influenced domestic English drama and revitalised it. Their contemporariesGilbert and Sullivan had a similar impact on musical theatre with theircomic operas. TheShakespeare Memorial Theatre was opened in Shakespeare's birthplaceStratford upon Avon in 1879 andHerbert Beerbohm Tree founded anAcademy of Dramatic Art atHer Majesty's Theatre in 1904.^[43]

The early twentieth century was dominated bydrawing-room plays produced by the likes ofNoël Coward, which were then challenged by thekitchen sink realism and absurdist drama influenced by IrishmanSamuel Beckett in the 1950s and 60s. Conversely 1952 saw the first performance ofAgatha Christie'sThe Mousetrap, a drawing-room murder mystery that has seen over 25,000 performances and is thelongest-running West End show.^[44] At the same time the performing arts theatreSadler's Wells, underLilian Baylis, nurtured talent that led to the development of an opera company, which became theEnglish National Opera (ENO); a theatre company, which evolved into the National Theatre; and a ballet company, which eventually became the EnglishRoyal Ballet. Elsewhere theRoyal Shakespeare Company was founded in 1959 atStratford-upon-Avon, and continues to mainly stage Shakespeare's plays.

Contemporary British theatre is focused on theWest End, London's major theatre district. TheTheatre Royal, Drury Lane in theCity of Westminster dates back to 1663, making it the oldest London theatre, however the Theatre Royal at theBristol Old Vic is the oldest continually-operating theatre in the English speaking world, opening in 1768.^[45] The musicals ofAndrew Lloyd Webber have dominated the West End since the late 20th century, leading him to be dubbed "the most commercially successful composer in history".^[46] ANational Theatre of Scotland was set up in 2006.

British Baroque music was heavily influenced by continental fashions. This is exemplified byGeorge Frideric Handel, a German-born naturalised British citizen whose choral music set British taste for the next two centuries. His operas also helped Britain challenge Italy as a centre of operatic production. Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of theBirmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. Beyond this, the establishment of theLondon Philharmonic Society in 1813,Royal Academy of Music in 1822, andIrish Academy of Music in 1848 aided the professionalisation of British classical music and patronage of composers.

The Philharmonic Society was a strong supporter of the GermanFelix Mendelssohn, an early Romantic composer who also strongly influenced British music. In Ireland,John Field invented the nocturne and may have been an influence on Chopin and Liszt. A notable development of the mid- to late-nineteenth century was the resurgence ofEnglish-language opera and the establishment of several prominent orchestras, including theRoyal Liverpool Philharmonic in 1840, Manchester-basedHallé in 1858, theScottish Orchestra in 1891 and theCity of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra in 1920. The most notable trend in classical music at the turn of the century was the nationalistic trend that developed. This was initially seen in works likeThe Masque at Kenilworth, which reconstructed an Elizabethan masque, but later took a pastoral turn under the influence of theBritish folk revival. Examplars of this period areRalph Vaughan Williams'English Folk Song Suite, andSir Alexander Mackenzie'sScottish Rhapsodies.

Modern and contemporary classical music takes a variety of forms. Composers such asBenjamin Britten developed idiosyncratic and avant-garde styles, while the likes ofWilliam Walton produced more conventional ceremonial and patriotic music. The UK now has several major orchestras, including theBBC Symphony Orchestra, and thePhilharmonia, while the establishment of theOpera North in 1977 sought to redress the balance of operatic institutions away from London. There are several classical festivals, such asAldeburgh andGlydebourne, while theBBC Proms are an important annual fixture in the classical calendar.

Popular commercial music in Britain can be traced back at least as far as the seventeenth-centurybroadside ballad, and also encompassesbrass band music andmusic hall. Popular music in the modern sense began to emerge in the 1950s, as the American styles ofjazz androck and roll became popular. Theskiffle revival was an early attempt to create a British form of American music, but it was the emergence ofBritish rock and roll by the early 1960s that established a viable British popular music industry. Genres such asbeat andBritish blues were re-exported to America by bands such as theBeatles andRolling Stones, in a move that came to be called theBritish Invasion. The 1960s saw the development ofheavy metal inBirmingham and the wider area. The development ofblues rock helped differentiate rock and pop music, leading to the emergence of several sub-genres of rock in the 1970s.Glam rock was a particularly British genre that emphasised outrageous costumes, while the end of the decade saw the rise ofpunk,new wave, andpost-punk bands. The influence of immigration could also be seen in the increased prominence ofWorld music, particularlyJamaican music.

The 1980s were a successful decade in British pop, as a secondBritish Invasion was witnessed and new technology enabled genres such assynthpop to form. Jazz saw a resurgence as black British musicians created new fusions such asAcid Jazz.Indie rock was a reaction to the perceived saturation of the music industry by pop, exemplified byStock Aitken Waterman's domination of the charts. This continued in the 1990s, asboy bands,all-female andmixed groups dominated the singles chart, while theMadchester scene helped drivealternative rock andBritpop to the mainstream. British soul saw a rise that continued into the 2000s, including the global success ofAdele. Dance music also saw innovation, with genres such asdubstep andnew rave emerging.

Handel's "Arrival of the Queen of Sheba", fromSolomon

---

"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau (Land of My Fathers)"

---

"Auld Lang Syne"

---

Problems playing these files? Seemedia help.

In contrast to the comparatively homogeneous classical and pop genres, each nation of the UK has retained a distinct tradition of folk music. The traditionalfolk music of England has contributed to several genres, such assea shanties,jigs,hornpipes anddance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities, while musicalMorris dancing is an English folk dance known to have existed at least as early as the mid-15th century.^[48]

Thebagpipes have long been a national symbol of Scotland, and theGreat Highland Bagpipe is widely recognised. TheEnglish and Scottish Popular Ballads, areballads of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century, demonstrating great regional variety, particularly local traditions such as theBorder ballads, which include the particularly influentialBallad of Chevy Chase. British folk groups, such asFairport Convention, have drawn heavily from these ballads.

Similarly, while thenational anthem "God Save the King" and other patriotic songs such as "Rule, Britannia!" represent the United Kingdom, each of the four individual countries of the UK has its own patriotic hymns. For example,Jerusalem,Flower of Scotland,Land of My Fathers, andDanny Boy pertain exclusively to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland respectively. These songs are often used at sporting events where each nation competes individually.

Britain has had a significant film industry for over a century. While many films focus on British culture, British cinema is also marked by its interaction and competition withAmerican and continentalEuropean cinema.

The UK was the location of the oldest surviving moving picture,Roundhay Garden Scene (1888), which was shot inRoundhay,Leeds by French inventorLouis Le Prince, while the first British film,Incident at Clovelly Cottage was shot in 1895.^[49] The world's firstcolour motion picture was shot byEdward Raymond Turner in 1902.^[50] British film production suffered in the 1920s in face of competition from American imports and a legal requirement for cinemas to show a set quota of British films, which encouraged poor-quality, low-cost productions to meet this demand. This had changed by the 1940s, when the government encouraged fewer, higher-quality films to be made. This era also saw the rise ofAlfred Hitchcock, who soon moved to the US and become one of the twentieth century's most influential directors. DuringWorld War II theCrown Film Unit established a reputation for documentaries, whilePowell and Pressburger began their influential and innovative collaboration.

The post-war period was a particular high point for British filmmaking, producingThe Third Man andBrief Encounter, which theBritish Film Institute consider the best and second-best British films respectively.Laurence Olivier's 1948Hamlet was the first British film to win theAcademy Award for Best Picture. The 1950s saw a focus on popular domestic topics such as comedies, including the enduringCarry On series, and World War II epics such asTheDam Busters. At the end of the decadeHammer Films took advantage of relaxed censorship laws to begin their series of successful horror films. The beginning of the 1960s saw theBritish New Wave style develop, influenced by its French counterpart, that sought to depict a wider strata of society in a realistic manner. The 1960s also saw renewed American financial interest in British film, which particularly manifested itself in the development ofhistorical epics, such as Best Picture winnersLawrence of Arabia andA Man for All Seasons;spy thrillers, including the first films in theJames Bond franchise; and films based on 'swinging London' scene.

The 1970s saw a withdrawal of American support and a retrenchment in British cinema, though the decade did see culturally important productions such as the horrorThe Wicker Man andMonty Python's comedic films. The decade also saw theCommonwealth influence British film, asPressure andA Private Enterprise are considered the firstBlack British andBritish Asian films respectively. 1981'sChariots of Fire and 1982'sGandhi both won the Best Picture Oscar, the latter winning eight awards, prompting a resurgence in period films. 1982 also saw the creation ofChannel 4, which had a remit to promote films for minority audiences. Films with racial and LGBT themes were produced, while Channel 4's involvement saw television stars move into feature films.

American investment again increased in the 1990s, and the success ofFour Weddings and a Funeral sawromantic comedies rise in popularity.Merchant Ivory Productions, boosted by the Oscars success of the previous decade's period pieces, continued to produce films in the same vein. American studios also began to base the production of Hollywood films in the UK, encouraged by tax incentives. 1996'sTrainspotting led to increased interest in regional, particularly Scottish, cinema. While American-funded films continued their influence in the 2010s, domestic European co-productions also received acclaim.The Queen was British-French production for whichHelen Mirren won Best Actress, while theUK Film Council fundedThe King's Speech, which won Best Picture in 2011. Asian British cinema has risen in prominence since 1999, whenEast is East was a mainstream success on a low budget.

The UK has been at the forefront of developments in film, radio and television. Broadcasting in the UK has historically been dominated by the taxpayer-funded but independently runBritish Broadcasting Corporation (commonly known as theBBC), although other independent radio and television (ITV,Channel 4,Five) and satellite broadcasters (especiallyBSkyB which has over 10 million subscribers) have become more important in recent years. BBC television, and the other three main television channels arepublic service broadcasters who, as part of their licence allowing them to operate, broadcast a variety of minority interest programming. The BBC and Channel 4 are state-owned, though they operate independently.

Launched in 1955, ITV is the oldest commercial television network in the UK.^[51] DirectorRidley Scott's evocative 1973Hovis bread television commercial captured the public imagination. Filmed onGold Hill, Shaftesbury in Dorset, Scott's advert was voted the UK's favourite television advertisement of all time in 2006.^[52] Other notable British commercials include the 1989British Airways face advertisement, the 2005noitulovE advert forGuinness, the 2007Gorilla advertisement byCadbury chocolate featuring a gorilla playing drums with Phil Collins' track "In the Air Tonight" playing in the background, and a 2013 advert forGalaxy chocolate bar featuring a computer-generated image ofAudrey Hepburn. Christmas commercials are screened from early November in the UK, with campaigns including theJohn Lewis Christmas advert for the department store chain.

International football tournaments, such as theWorld Cup, are historically the most viewed sports events among the public, whileMatch of the Day is the most popular weekly football show. The1966 FIFA World Cup final and thefuneral of Princess Diana are the twomost watched television events ever in the UK.^[53]Satire has been a prominent feature inBritish comedy for centuries. The Britishsatire boom of the 1960s, which consisted of writers and performers such asPeter Cook,Dudley Moore,Alan Bennett,David Frost andJonathan Miller, has heavily influenced British television, including the sketch comedy seriesMonty Python's Flying Circus created in 1969 byMonty Python. Regarded as the leading figure of the satire boom, Peter Cook was ranked number one in theComedians' Comedian poll.^[54] The puppet showSpitting Image was a satire of theroyal family, politics, entertainment, sport and British culture of the 1980s up to the mid-1990s.

Have I Got News for You andMock the Week are the two longest running satirical panel shows. Satire also features heavily in theGrand Theft Auto video game series which has been ranked among Britain's most successful exports.^[55] Theslapstick and double entendre ofBenny Hill also achieved very high ratings on British television, as did the physical humour ofMr. Bean. Popular comedy duos in television includeThe Two Ronnies andMorecambe and Wise, with both shows featuring memorable sketches.Jeeves and Wooster starredHugh Laurie asBertie Wooster, an airy, nonchalant, gormless, idle young gentleman andStephen Fry asJeeves, his calm, well-informed, and talentedvalet. Created by and starringRik Mayall as Richie andAdrian Edmondson as Eddie,Bottom features two crude, perverted flatmates with no jobs and little money, which is noted for its chaotic, nihilistic humour and violent comedy slapstick.^[56]Steve Coogan created the characterAlan Partridge, a tactless and inept television presenter who often insults his guests and whose inflated sense of celebrity drives him to shameless self-promotion.Da Ali G Show starredSacha Baron Cohen as a faux-streetwise poseurAli G from west London, who would conduct real interviews with unsuspecting people, many of whom are celebrities, during which they are asked absurd and ridiculous questions.

AnimatorNick Park created theWallace and Gromit characters atAardman Animations studio in Bristol. They feature inA Grand Day Out (1989),The Wrong Trousers (1993) andA Close Shave (1995), which all have100% positive ratings on the aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes, whileA Matter of Loaf and Death was the most watched television programme in the UK in 2008. Aardman also produce the kid's showShaun the Sheep. One of the most popular children's shows originating in the UK isThomas & Friends (based onThe Railway Series books byWilbert Awdry), which has become the number one licensed preschool property in the world.^[57] Other popular children's shows includePostman Pat,Fireman Sam,Teletubbies,Bob the Builder andPeppa Pig.

First airing in 1958,Blue Peter is famous for itsarts and crafts "makes". The show has been a staple for generations of British children. Popular live action TV shows includeThe Borrowers (based onMary Norton books on little people),The Adventures of Black Beauty,The Famous Five (based onEnid Blyton books),The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (based on theC. S. Lewis novel), andPride and Prejudice (starringColin Firth asMr. Darcy). The actorDavid Jason has voiced a number of popular characters in children's animation, includingThe Wind in the Willows (based on the children's book byKenneth Grahame),Danger Mouse andCount Duckula. Other children's shows includeWhere's Wally? (a series based on books by authorMartin Handford where readers are challenged to find Wally who is hidden in the group),Dennis the Menace and Gnasher, whileThunderbirds andTerrahawks byGerry andSylvia Anderson have been praised for creatingSupermarionation.^[58]

Debuting in 1982,The Snowman (featuring the festive song "Walking in the Air") is annually screened at Christmas. Shown on the BBC, the UK holds two high-profile charity telethon events,Children in Need, held annually in November, andComic Relief, which alternates withSports Relief, every March. The 2011 edition of Comic Relief saw the first appearance ofJames Corden's Carpool Karaoke sketch when he drove around London singing songs withGeorge Michael. British programmes dominate the list of TV's most watched shows in the UK, with thekitchen sink dramas, ITV'sCoronation Street and BBC'sEastEnders, both often ranking high on the ratings list compiled byBARB.^[53] The majorsoap operas each feature apub, and these pubs have become household names throughout the UK. TheRovers Return is the pub inCoronation Street, theQueen Vic (short for theQueen Victoria) is the pub inEastEnders, and theWoolpack in ITV'sEmmerdale. The pub being a prominent setting in the three major television soap operas reflects the role pubs have as the focal point of the community in many towns and villages across the UK. Espionage and detective shows have long been a staple of British television, such as the 1960s seriesThe Avengers featuring lady spy adventurer and cultural (and feminist) iconEmma Peel.

The United Kingdom has a large number of national and local radio stations which cover a great variety of programming. The most listened to stations are the five main nationalBBC Radio stations.BBC Radio 1, a new music station aimed at the 16–24 age group.BBC Radio 2, a variedpopular music and chat station aimed at adults is consistently highest in the ratings.BBC Radio 4, a varied talk station, is noted for its news,current affairs,drama andcomedy output as well asThe Archers, its long running soap opera, and other unique programmes, includingDesert Island Discs (1942–present), an interview programme in which a famous guest (called a "castaway") chooses eight pieces of music, a book and a luxury item that they would take with them to a desert island. Currently presented byLauren Laverne, it is the longest running music radio programme in British history.

The idea for aChristmas message was conceived by one of the founders of the BBC. Delivered annually by the monarch, it was first broadcast on BBC Radio in 1932. Analternative Christmas message was first broadcast on Channel 4 in 1993. Broadcast from 1951 to 1960, radio comedyThe Goon Show, starringPeter Sellers,Spike Milligan andHarry Secombe, mixed ludicrous plots with surreal humour, puns, catchphrases and an array of bizarre sound effects. The show has exerted considerable influence on British comedy and culture. As a film star Sellers in particular became influential to film actors by using different accents and guises and assuming multiple roles in the same film. ComedianMarty Feldman co-created the acclaimed BBC Radio comedy programmeRound the Horne in 1965. The long running radio comedyJust a Minute first aired on BBC Radio 4 in 1967. Panellists must talk for sixty seconds on a given subject, "without hesitation, repetition or deviation". Guests over the years have includedStephen Fry,Eddie Izzard andSue Perkins. First broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 1978, the science fiction comedy radio seriesThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy was innovative in its use of music and sound effects. The BBC, as apublic service broadcaster, also runs minority stations such asBBC Asian Network,BBC Radio 1Xtra andBBC Radio 6 Music, and local stations throughout the country. Rock music stationAbsolute Radio, and sports stationTalksport, are among the biggest commercial radio stations in the UK.^[59]

• List of radio stations in the United Kingdom
• List of television stations in the United Kingdom

Freedom of the press was established in Great Britain in 1695.^[60] Popular national newspapers includeThe Times,Financial Times,The Guardian,The Daily Telegraph andThe Independent.

Founded by publisherJohn Walter in 1785,The Times is the first newspaper to have borne that name, lending it to numerous other papers around the world, and is the originator of the widely usedTimes Roman typeface, created byVictor Lardent and commissioned byStanley Morison in 1931.^[61] Newspaper and publishing magnateAlfred Harmsworth played a major role in "shaping the modern press" – Harmsworth introduced or harnessed "broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control" – and was called "the greatest figure who ever strode downFleet Street."^[62]The Economist was founded byJames Wilson in 1843, and the dailyFinancial Times was founded in 1888. FoundingThe Gentleman's Magazine in 1731,Edward Cave coined the term "magazine" for a periodical, and was the first publisher to successfully fashion a wide-ranging publication.^[63] Founded byThomas Gibson Bowles,Vanity Fair featuredcaricatures of famous people for which it is best known today.^[64]

A pioneer of children's publishing,John Newbery made children's literature a sustainable and profitable part of the literary market.^[65]The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes was published by Newbery in 1765.^[65] Founded by SirAllen Lane in 1935,Penguin Books revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its inexpensivepaperbacks, bringing high-quality paperback fiction and non-fiction to the mass market.^[66] Formed in 1940,Puffin Books is the children's imprint of Penguin Books.Barbara Euphan Todd's scarecrow story,Worzel Gummidge, was the first Puffin story book in 1941.^[67]

TheGuinness Book of Records was the brainchild of SirHugh Beaver. On 10 November 1951 he became involved in an argument over which was the fastestgame bird in Europe, and realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated throughout the world, but there was no book with which to settle arguments about records. He realised that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. His idea became reality when an acquaintance of his recommended University friendsNorris andRoss McWhirter who were then commissioned to compile what becameThe Guinness Book of Records in August 1954.^[68]E. L. James' erotic romancetrilogyFifty Shades of Grey,Fifty Shades Darker, andFifty Shades Freed, have sold over 125 million copies globally, and set the record in the United Kingdom as the fastest selling paperback.^[69]

Copyright laws originated in Britain with theStatute of Anne (also known as the Copyright Act 1709), which outlined the individual rights of the artist. A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognised a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved.^[70] The Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.^[71]

From the creation of the United Kingdom, theEnglish school of painting is mainly notable for portraits and landscapes, and indeed portraits in landscapes. Among the artists of this period areJoshua Reynolds (1723–1792),George Stubbs (1724–1806), andThomas Gainsborough (1727–1788).

Pictorial satiristWilliam Hogarth pioneered Western sequential art, and political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian". Following the work of Hogarth,political cartoons developed in England in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction ofJames Gillray. Regarded as being one of the two most influentialcartoonists (the other being Hogarth), Gillray has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon, with his satirical work calling the king (George III), prime ministers and generals to account.^[73]

The late 18th century and the early 19th century was perhaps the most radical period in British art, producingWilliam Blake (1757–1827),John Constable (1776–1837) andJ. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), three of the most influential British artists, each of whom have dedicated spaces allocated for their work at theTate Britain.^[74] Named after Turner, theTurner Prize (created in 1984) is an annual award presented to a British visual artist under the age of 50.

ThePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (PRB) achieved considerable influence after its foundation in 1848 with paintings that concentrated on religious, literary, andgenre subjects executed in a colourful and minutely detailed style. PRB artists includedJohn Everett Millais,Dante Gabriel Rossetti and subsequentlyEdward Burne-Jones. Also associated with it was the designerWilliam Morris, whose efforts to make beautiful objects affordable (or even free) for everyone led to his wallpaper and tile designs to some extent defining theVictorian aesthetic and instigating theArts and Crafts movement.

Visual artists from the UK in the 20th century includeLucian Freud,Francis Bacon,David Hockney,Bridget Riley, and thepop artistsRichard Hamilton andPeter Blake. Also prominent amongst 20th-century artists wasHenry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.Sir Jacob Epstein was a pioneer of modern sculpture. In 1958 artistGerald Holtom designed the protest logo for the BritishCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), the peace movement in the UK, which became a universalpeace symbol.^[75] As a reaction toabstract expressionism,pop art emerged in England at the end of the 1950s. The 1990s saw theYoung British Artists,Damien Hirst andTracey Emin.

The auction was revived in 17th- and 18th-century England whenauctions by candle began to be used for the sale of goods and leaseholds, some of which were recorded inSamuel Pepys'sdiary in 1660.^[77] Headquartered in King Street, London,Christie's, the world's largest auction house, was founded in 1766 by auctioneerJames Christie in London. Known for his thickly impasted portrait and figure paintings, Lucian Freud was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time. Freud was depicted in Francis Bacon's 1969 oil painting,Three Studies of Lucian Freud, which was sold for $142.4 million in November 2013, thehighest price attained at auction to that point.^[78]

Randolph Caldecott,Walter Crane,Kate Greenaway,John Tenniel,Aubrey Beardsley,Roger Hargreaves,Arthur Rackham,John Leech,George Cruikshank andBeatrix Potter were notable book illustrators. Posters have played a significant role in British culture. Designed byAlfred Leete in 1914 as a recruitment poster for the British Army, "Lord Kitchener Wants You" is the most famous British recruitment poster ever produced and an iconic and enduring image of World War I.^[79] Produced by the British government in 1939 for World War II, theKeep Calm and Carry On motivational poster is now seen as "not only as a distillation of a crucial moment in Britishness, but also as an inspiring message from the past to the present in a time of crisis".^[80]

In the late 1960s, Britishgraphic designerStorm Thorgerson co-founded the graphic art groupHipgnosis, who have designed many iconic single and album covers for rock bands. His works were notable for theirsurreal elements, with perhaps the most famous being the cover for Pink Floyd'sThe Dark Side of the Moon.^[81] Designed and photographed byBrian Duffy, theAladdin Sane album cover features a lightning bolt across his face which is regarded as one of the most iconic images of David Bowie. The subversive political artwork ofBanksy (pseudonym of Englishgraffiti artist whose identity is concealed) can be found on streets, walls and buildings in the UK and the rest of the world.^[82] Arts institutions include theRoyal College of Art,Royal Society of Arts,New English Art Club,Slade School of Art,Royal Academy, and theTate Gallery (founded as the National Gallery of British Art).

Design

In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight,Concorde was named the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and theDesign Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as theMini,mini skirt,Jaguar E-Type,Tube map and theSupermarine Spitfire.^[83]

SirMorien Morgan led research intosupersonic transport in 1948 that culminated in the Concorde passenger aircraft.^[84] In November 1956 he became chairman of the newly formed Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee which funded research into supersonic transport at several British aviation firms though the 1950s. By the late 1950s, the committee had started the process of selecting specific designs for development, and after the forced merger of most aviation firms in 1960, selected theBristol Type 223, designed byArchibald Russell, as the basis for a transatlantic design.^[84]

TheBrit Awards statuette for theBPI's annual music awards, which depictsBritannia, the female personification of Britain, is regularly redesigned by some of the best known British designers, stylists and artists, including DameVivienne Westwood,Damien Hirst,Tracey Emin, SirPeter Blake,Zaha Hadid and SirAnish Kapoor.^[85]

Large outdoormusic festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such asGlastonbury (the largest greenfield festival in the world),V Festival,Reading and Leeds Festivals. The UK was at the forefront of the illegal, freerave movement from the late 1980s, which led to pan-European culture ofteknivals mirrored on the British free festival movement and associated travelling lifestyle.^[86] The most prominentopera house in England is theRoyal Opera House atCovent Gardens.^[87]The Proms, a season oforchestral classical music concerts held at theRoyal Albert Hall, is a major cultural event held annually.^[87]The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th-century dance,prima ballerinaMargot Fonteyn and choreographerFrederick Ashton.Irish dancing is popular in Northern Ireland and among the Irish diaspora throughout the UK; its costumes feature patterns taken from the medievalBook of Kells.^[88]

A staple of British seaside culture, the quarrelsome couplePunch and Judy made their first recorded appearance in Covent Garden, London in 1662.^[89] The various episodes of Punch and Judy are performed in the spirit of outrageous comedy – often provoking shocked laughter – and are dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch.^[90] Regarded as British cultural icons, they appeared at a significant period in British history, with Glyn Edwards stating: "[Pulcinella] went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years ofPuritanism. We soon changed Punch's name, transformed him from a marionette to a hand puppet, and he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority, a kind of puppet equivalent to our political cartoons."^[89]

Thecircus is a traditional form of entertainment in the UK.Chipperfield's Circus dates back more than 300 years in Britain, making it one of the oldest family circus dynasties.Philip Astley is regarded as the father of themodern circus.^[91] Following his invention of the circus ring in 1768,Astley's Amphitheatre opened in London in 1773.^[91] As an equestrian master Astley had a skill for trick horse-riding, and when he added tumblers,tightrope-walkers,jugglers, performing dogs, and aclown to fill time between his own demonstrations – the modern circus was born.^[91] The Hughes Royal Circus was popular in London in the 1780s.Pablo Fanque's Circus Royal, among the most popular circuses of Victorian England, showcasedWilliam Kite, which inspiredJohn Lennon to write "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" onThe Beatles' albumSgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.Joseph Grimaldi, originator ofwhitefaceclown make-up, is considered the father of modern clowning.^[92]

TheEdinburgh Festival Fringe is the world's largestarts festival. Established in 1947, it takes place in Scotland's capital during three weeks every August alongside several other arts and cultural festivals. The Fringe mostly attracts events from theperforming arts, particularly theatre and comedy, although dance and music also feature. TheNotting Hill Carnival is an annual event that has taken place on the streets ofNotting Hill, London since 1966.^[93] Led by theBritish African-Caribbean community, the carnival has attracted around one million people, making it Britain's biggest street festival and one of the largest in the world.^[93] Also of note is the extensive impact of Irish culture for St. Patrick's Day. The largest St Patrick's Day Parade takes place inDigbeth,Birmingham, where there is a strong Irish community.

Pantomime (often referred to as "panto") is a Britishmusical comedy stage production, designed for family entertainment. It is performed in theatres throughout the UK during the Christmas and New Year season. The art originated in the 18th century withJohn Weaver, a dance master and choreographer at theTheatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.^[94] In 19th-century England it acquired its present form, which includes songs, slapstick comedy and dancing, employing gender-crossing actors, combiningtopical humour with a story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale.^[94] It is a participatory form of theatre, in which the audience sing along with parts of the music and shout out phrases to the performers, such as "It's behind you".^[95]

Pantomime story lines and scripts are almost always based on traditional children's stories: some of the popular British stories featured includeJack and the Beanstalk,Peter Pan,Babes in the Wood,Goldilocks and the Three Bears andDick Whittington and His Cat. Plot lines are almost always adapted for comic or satirical effect, and characters and situations from other stories are often interpolated into the plot. For example,Jack and the Beanstalk might include references to English nursery rhymes involving characters called "Jack", such asJack and Jill. Famous people regularly appear in Pantos, such asIan McKellen.^[96] McKellen has also appeared at gay pride marches, withManchester Pride one of 15 annual gay pride parades in the UK; the largest inBrighton attracts over 300,000.^[97]

Music hall is a British theatrical entertainment popular from the early Victorian era to the mid-20th century. The precursor tovariety shows of today, music hall involved a mixture of popular songs, comedy, speciality acts and variety entertainment. Music hall songs include "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am", "Hokey cokey", "I Do Like To be Beside the Seaside" and "The Laughing Policeman". British performers who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches includeCharlie Chaplin,Stan Laurel,George Formby,Gracie Fields,Dan Leno,Gertrude Lawrence,Marie Lloyd andHarry Champion.^[99] British music hall comedian and theatre impresarioFred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were notable music hall comedians who worked for him.^[99] Laurel stated, "Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it".^[100] Film producerHal Roach stated; "Fred Karno is not only a genius, he is the man who originatedslapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him."^[101] Examples of variety shows that evolved from the music hall include theRoyal Variety Performance (first performed in 1912), which was broadcast on BBC radio from the 1920s, and then on television since the 1950s. Annually held in December (often at theLondon Palladium) and performed in front of members of theBritish royal family, manyfamous acts have performed at theRoyal Variety show over the century, and since 2007 one act of the show has been selected by the British public through theITV television talent showBritain's Got Talent.

Thearchitecture of the United Kingdom includes many features that precede the creation of the United Kingdom in 1707, from as early asSkara Brae andStonehenge to theGiant's Ring,Avebury andRomanruins. In most towns and villages the parish church is an indication of the age of the settlement. Manycastles remain from themedieval period, such asWindsor Castle (longest-occupied castle in Europe),^[103]Stirling Castle (one of the largest and most important in Scotland),Bodiam Castle (amoated castle), andWarwick Castle. Over the two centuries following theNorman conquest of England of 1066, and the building of theTower of London, castles such asCaernarfon Castle in Wales andCarrickfergus Castle in Ireland were built.

English Gothic architecture flourished from the 12th to the early 16th century, and famous examples includeWestminster Abbey, the traditional place ofcoronation for theBritish monarch, which also has a long tradition as a venue forroyal weddings; and was the location of thefuneral of Princess Diana,^[105]Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England;Salisbury Cathedral, which has the tallest churchspire in the UK; andWinchester Cathedral, which has the longestnave and greatest overall length of any Gothic cathedral in Europe.^[106]Tudor architecture is the final development of Medieval architecture in England, during theTudor period (1485–1603). In the United Kingdom, alisted building is a building or other structure officially designated as being of special architectural, historical or cultural significance. About half a million buildings in the UK have "listed" status.

In the 1680s,Downing Street was built bySir George Downing, and its most famous address10 Downing Street, became the residence of thePrime Minister in 1730.^[107] One of the best-known English architects working at the time of the foundation of the United Kingdom was SirChristopher Wren. He was employed to design and rebuild many of the ruined ancient churches of London following theGreat Fire of London. His masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed in the early years of the United Kingdom.^[108]Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the British monarch, was built in 1705. Both St Paul's Cathedral and Buckingham Palace usePortland stone, a limestone from theJurassic periodquarried in theJurassic Coast inPortland, Dorset, which is famous for its use in British and world architecture.^[109]

In the early 18th centuryBaroque architecture – popular in Europe – was introduced, andBlenheim Palace was built in this era. However, Baroque was quickly replaced by a return of the Palladian form. TheGeorgian architecture of the 18th century was an evolved form of Palladianism. Many existing buildings such asWoburn Abbey andKedleston Hall are in this style. Among the many architects of this form of architecture and its successors,neoclassical andromantic, wereRobert Adam, SirWilliam Chambers, andJames Wyatt.

The aristocraticstately home continued the tradition of the first large gracious unfortified mansions such as theElizabethanMontacute House andHatfield House. Many of these houses are the setting for British period dramas, such asDownton Abbey. During the 18th and 19th centuries in the highest echelons of British society, theEnglish country house was a place for relaxing, hunting in the countryside. Many stately homes have become open to the public:Knebworth House, now a major venue foropen air rock and pop concerts –Freddie Mercury's final live performance withQueen took place at Knebworth on 9 August 1986,^[110]Alton Towers, the most populartheme park in the UK, andLongleat, the world's firstsafari park outside Africa.

In the early 19th century the romanticGothic revival began in England as a reaction to thesymmetry of Palladianism. Notable examples of Gothic revival architecture are theHouses of Parliament andFonthill Abbey. By the middle of the 19th century, as a result of new technology, one could incorporate steel as a building component: one of the greatest exponents of this wasJoseph Paxton, architect ofthe Crystal Palace. Paxton also built such houses asMentmore Towers, in the still popular retrospectiveRenaissance styles. In this era of prosperity and development British architecture embraced many new methods of construction, but such architects asAugust Pugin ensured that traditional styles were retained.

Following the building of the world's firstseaside pier in July 1814 inRyde,Isle of Wight off the south coast of England, the pier became fashionable atseaside resorts in the UK during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built.^[111] Providing a walkway out to sea, the seaside pier is regarded as among the finest Victorian architecture, and is an iconic symbol of the British seaside holiday.^[111] By 1914, there were over 100 piers around the UK's coasts.^[111] Today there are 55seaside piers in the UK.^[111]Tower Bridge (half a mile fromLondon Bridge) opened in 1895.

At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of design,arts and crafts, became popular; the architectural form of this style, which had evolved from the 19th-century designs of such architects asGeorge Devey, was championed byEdwin Lutyens. Arts and crafts in architecture is characterised by an informal, non-symmetrical form, often withmullioned orlattice windows, multiplegables and tall chimneys. This style continued to evolve until World War II. After that war, reconstruction went through a variety of phases, but was heavily influenced byModernism, especially from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. Many bleak town centre redevelopments—criticised for featuring hostile, concrete-lined "windswept plazas"—were the fruit of this interest, as were many equally bleak public buildings, such as theHayward Gallery.

Many Modernist-inspired town centres are today being redeveloped:Bracknell town centre is an example. However, in the immediate post-War years many thousands (perhaps hundreds of thousands) ofcouncil houses in vernacular style were built, giving working-class people their first experience of private gardens and indoorsanitation. Many towns also feature statues or sculptures dedicated to famous natives. Modernism remains a significant force in British architecture, although its influence is felt predominantly in commercial buildings. The two most prominent proponents areLord Rogers of Riverside andNorman Foster. Rogers' best known London buildings are probablyLloyd's Building and theMillennium Dome, while Foster created the 'Gherkin' and theCity Hall. TheTurner Prize winning artist SirAnish Kapoor is an acclaimed contemporary British sculptors. A notable design is hisArcelorMittal Orbit sculpture at theOlympic Park in London.

Described byThe Guardian as the 'Queen of the curve',Zaha Hadid liberated architectural geometry with the creation of highly expressive, sweeping fluid forms ofmultiple perspective points andfragmented geometry that evoke the chaos and flux of modern life.^[113] A pioneer ofparametricism, and an icon ofneo-futurism, with a formidable personality, her acclaimed work and ground-breaking forms includethe aquatic centre for the London 2012 Olympics.^[113] In 2010 and 2011 she received theStirling Prize, the UK's most prestigious architectural award, and in 2015 she became the first woman to be awarded theRoyal Gold Medal from theRoyal Institute of British Architects. Completed in 2012, theShard London Bridge is the tallest building in the UK. Other major skyscrapers under construction in London include22 Bishopsgate, andHeron Tower. Modernist architectNicholas Grimshaw designed theEden Project in Cornwall, which is the world's largest greenhouse.^[114]

British comics in the early 20th century typically evolved from illustratedpenny dreadfuls of the Victorian era (featuringSweeney Todd,Dick Turpin andVarney the Vampire). A growing consumer culture and an increased capacity for travel throughout the UK via the invention ofrailway (in 1825) created both a market for cheap popular literature, and the ability for it to be circulated on a large scale. Created in the 1830s,The Guardian described penny dreadfuls as "Britain's first taste of mass-producedpopular culture for the young".^[115] Introducing familiar features invampire fiction,Varney is the first story to refer to sharpened teeth for avampire.^[116] After adult comics had been published – most notablyAlly Sloper's Half Holiday (1880s) featuringAlly Sloper who has been called the first regular character in comics,^[117] – more juvenile British comics emerged, with the two most popular,The Beano andThe Dandy, released byDC Thomson (based inDundee, Scotland) in the 1930s. By 1950 the weekly circulation of both reached two million.^[118] Explaining the popularity of comics during this period, Anita O'Brien, director curator at London's Cartoon Museum, states: "When comics like theBeano andDandy were invented back in the 1930s – and through really to the 1950s and 1960s – these comics were almost the only entertainment available to children."^[118]

In 1954Tiger comics introducedRoy of the Rovers, the hugely popular football based strip recounting the life ofRoy Race and the team he played for,Melchester Rovers. The stock media phrase "real 'Roy of the Rovers' stuff" is often used by football writers, commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill, or surprising results that go against the odds, in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip's trademark. Other comic books,graphic novels, and sequential art of various genres also flourished. These included fantasy and science fiction likeEagle,Valiant,Warrior, and2000 AD. Other popular titles were war comics inspired by British military history likeCommando,War Picture Library, andThe Victor.^[119][120]

Created byEmma Orczy in 1903,the Scarlet Pimpernel is the alter ego of Sir Percy Blakeney, a wealthy English fop who transforms into a formidable swordsman and a quick-thinking escape artist, establishing the "hero with asecret identity" into popular culture.^[121] The Scarlet Pimpernel first appeared on stage (1903) and then in novel (1905), and became very popular with the British public.^[122] He exhibits characteristics that became standard superhero conventions in comic books, including the penchant for disguise, use of a signature weapon (sword), ability to out-think and outwit his adversaries, and a calling card (he leaves behind ascarlet pimpernel at his interventions).^[122] Drawing attention to his alter ego Blakeney he hides behind his public face as a meek, slow thinking foppish playboy, and he establishes a network of supporters, The League of the Scarlet Pimpernel, that aid his endeavours.^[122]

In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "British Invasion" in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such asanarchy,controversy andpolitics common in British media, but were never before seen in American comics. These elements would pave the way for mature and "darker and edgier" comic books that would jump start theModern Age of Comics.^[123] Writers includedAlan Moore, famous for hisV for Vendetta,From Hell,Watchmen,Marvelman, andThe League of Extraordinary Gentlemen;^[124]Watchmen was described as "paving the way for a current cultural obsession" in comics;^[125]Neil Gaiman and his critically acclaimed and best-sellingThe Sandman mythos andBooks of Magic;Warren Ellis creator ofTransmetropolitan andPlanetary; and others such asAlan Grant,Grant Morrison,Dave Gibbons,Alan Davis, andMark Millar who createdWanted andKick-Ass.

Prominent comic book artists includeSteve Dillon,Simon Bisley,Dave McKean,Glen Fabry,John Ridgway andSean Phillips. The comic book seriesHellblazer, set in Britain and starring the Liverpudlian magicianJohn Constantine, paved the way for British writers such asJamie Delano,Mike Carey andDenise Mina.^[126]

Much of the folklore of the United Kingdom pre-dates the 18th century. Though some of the characters and stories are present throughout all of the UK, most belong to specific countries or regions. Common folkloric beings includepixies,giants,elves,bogeymen,trolls,goblins anddwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales ofOffa of Angeln andWeyland Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion of England, such asRobin Hood and hisMerry Men ofSherwood and their battles with theSheriff of Nottingham.^[127]Richard the Lionheart, Christian leader of theThird Crusade, came to be seen as a contemporary and supporter of Robin Hood. A plaque features Richard marrying Robin andMaid Marian outsideNottingham Castle.^[128]

During theHigh Middle Ages tales originated from Brythonic traditions, notably theArthurian legend.^[129] Deriving from Welsh source;King Arthur,Excalibur andMerlin, while theJersey poetWace introduced theKnights of the Round Table. These stories are most centrally brought together withinGeoffrey of Monmouth'sHistoria Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Another early figure fromBritish tradition,King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales make up part of the widerMatter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.

TheLoch Ness Monster is acryptid that is reputed to inhabitLoch Ness in the Scottish Highlands. The legendary monster has been affectionately referred to by the nickname "Nessie" since the 1950s. Theleprechaun figures large in Irish folklore. A mischievous fairy-type creature in emerald green clothing who when not playing tricks spends all its time busily making shoes, the leprechaun is said to have a pot of gold hidden at the end of therainbow, and if ever captured by a human it has the magical power to grant three wishes in exchange for release. In mythology, English fairy tales such asJack and the Beanstalk andJack the Giant Killer helped form the modern perception ofgiants as stupid and violent, while the dwarfTom Thumb is a traditional hero in English folklore.

English fairy taleGoldilocks and the Three Bears is one of the most popular fairy tales in the English language.^[130] Some folk figures are based on semi- or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries:Lady Godiva, for instance, was said to have ridden naked on horseback throughCoventry; the heroic English figureHereward the Wake resisted the Norman invasion;Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated withWindsor Forest andGreat Park, andMother Shipton is the archetypal witch.^[131] The chivalrous bandit, such asDick Turpin, is a recurring character.

Published in 1724,A General History of the Pyrates byCaptain Charles Johnson provided the standard account of the lives of many pirates in the Golden Age.^[132] It influenced pirate literature of Scottish novelistsRobert Louis Stevenson (Treasure Island) andJ. M. Barrie.^[132] Many famous English pirates from the Golden Age hailed from theWest Country in south west England—the stereotypicalWest Country "pirate accent" was popularised by West Country nativeRobert Newton's portrayal of Stevenson'sLong John Silver in film.^[133] The concept of "walking the plank" was popularised by Barrie'sPeter Pan, whereCaptain Hook's pirates helped define the archetype.^[134]Davy Jones' Locker, where sailors or ships' remains are consigned to the bottom of the sea, is first recorded byDaniel Defoe in 1726.^[135] Johnson's 1724 book gave a mythical status to famous English pirates such asBlackbeard andSamuel Bellamy, alongside giving them variousJolly Roger's of dubious historical truth. The most famous Jolly Roger, theCrossed Swords Jolly Roger, was factiously attributed to English pirateJohn Rackham.^[136]

TheGremlin is part ofRoyal Air Force folklore dating from the 1920s, with "gremlin" being RAF slang for a mischievous creature that sabotages aircraft, meddling in the plane's equipment.^[138] Legendary figures from 19th-century London whose tales have been romanticised includeSweeney Todd, the murderous barber ofFleet Street (accompanied withMrs. Lovett who sells pies made from Todd's victims), and serial killerJack the Ripper. On 5 November, people in Britain celebrateGuy Fawkes Night by making bonfires and lighting fireworks incommemoration of the foiling ofGuy Fawkes'Gunpowder Plot, which became an annual event after theObservance of 5th November Act 1605 was passed.^[139]Guy Fawkes masks are an emblem for anti-establishment protest groups.^[140]

Halloween is a traditional and much celebrated holiday in Scotland and Ireland on the night of 31 October.^[141] The name "Halloween" is first attested in the 16th century as aScottish shortening of the fullerAll-Hallows-Even,^[142] and according to some historians has its roots in theGaelic festivalSamhain, when the Gaels believed the border between this world and theotherworld became thin, and the dead would revisit the mortal world.^[143] In 1780,Dumfries poetJohn Mayne makes note of pranks at Halloween;"What fearfu' pranks ensue!", as well as the supernatural associated with the night,"Bogies" (ghosts).^[144]Robert Burns' 1785 poem "Halloween" is recited by Scots at Halloween, and Burns was influenced by Mayne's composition.^[144]

In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs includeguising — children disguised incostume going from door to door requesting food or coins – which had become common practice by the late 19th century;^[145][146] (the Halloween masks, worn by children, are known as "false faces" in Ireland.^[147])turnips hollowed out and carved with faces to make lanterns,^[148] and holding parties where games such asapple bobbing are played.^[149]Agatha Christie's mystery novelHallowe'en Party is about a girl who is drowned in an apple-bobbing tub. Other practices in Ireland include lightingbonfires, and havingfirework displays.^[150] Further contemporary imagery of Halloween is derived fromGothic andhorror literature (notablyShelley'sFrankenstein andStoker'sDracula), and classic horror films (such asHammer Horrors). Mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish migration in the 19th century popularised Halloween in North America.^[151]

Witchcraft has featured in the British Isles for millennia. The use of acrystal ball to foretell the future is attributed to thedruids. In medieval folkloreKing Arthur's magician, the wizardMerlin, carried around a crystal ball for the same purpose.John Dee, consultant toElizabeth I, frequently used a crystal ball to communicate with the angels.^[152] Probably the most famous depiction of witchcraft in literature is inShakespeare's 1606 playMacbeth, featuring thethree witches and theircauldron. Theghost ofAnne Boleyn is a frequently reported ghost sighting in the UK. Differing accounts include seeing her ghost ride up toBlickling Hall in a coach drawn by a headless horseman, with her own head on her lap.^[153]

Neopagan witchcraft began in England in the early 20th century with notable figures such asAleister Crowley and the father of WiccaGerald Gardner, before expanding westward in the 1960s.^[154] Settling down near theNew Forest in Hampshire, Gardner joined an occult group through which he claimed to have encountered theNew Forest coven into which he was initiated in 1939.^[154] Believing the coven to be a survival of the pre-ChristianWitch-Cult, he decided to revive the faith, supplementing the coven's rituals with ideas borrowed from ceremonial magic and the writings of Crowley to form the Gardnerian tradition ofWicca.^[154] Moving to London in 1945, following the repeal of theWitchcraft Act 1735 Gardner became intent on propagating Wicca, attracting media attention and writingWitchcraft Today (1954) andThe Meaning of Witchcraft (1959). Crowley (the founder ofThelema) was described as "the most notorious occultist magician of the 20th century", and he remains an influential figure over Western esotericism and the counter-culture.^[155] His motto of "Do What Thou Wilt" is inscribed on the vinyl ofLed Zeppelin's albumLed Zeppelin III, and he is the subject ofOzzy Osbourne's single "Mr Crowley".^[156]

Each country has its own body responsible for heritage matters.

English Heritage is the government body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by theDepartment for Culture, Media and Sport. The charityNational Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty has a contrasting role. Seventeen of theUNESCO World Heritage Sites are in England. Some of the best known of these includeHadrian's Wall,Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites,Tower of London,Jurassic Coast,Westminster,Saltaire,Ironbridge Gorge, andStudley Royal Park. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire,Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England.^[157]

Historic Environment Scotland is the executive agency of theScottish Government, responsible for historic monuments in Scotland, such asStirling Castle. TheOld andNew Town of Edinburgh is a notable Scottish World Heritage site.Balmoral Castle is the main Scottish residence of the British monarch. TheWallace Monument in Stirling contains artifacts believed to have belonged to SirWilliam Wallace, including theWallace Sword. TheRob Roy Way, named after Scottish folk hero and outlawRob Roy MacGregor, is a long-distance footpath that runs for 92 miles. A statue ofRobert the Bruce and a large monument and visitor centre (operated by the National Trust for Scotland) is located in Bannockburn near the site of theBattle of Bannockburn.^[158]

Many of Wales' great castles, such as theCastles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd and other monuments, are under the care ofCadw, the historic environment service of theWelsh Government. Welsh actor SirAnthony Hopkins donated millions to the preservation ofSnowdonia National Park. The five most frequently visited Welsh castles areCaernarfon Castle,Conwy Castle,Caerphilly Castle,Harlech Castle andBeaumaris Castle. TheNorthern Ireland Environment Agency promotes and conserves the natural and built environment in Northern Ireland, and theGiant's Causeway on the north-east coast is one of the natural World Heritage sites.Tintagel Castle is a popular tourist destination in Cornwall, with the castle associated with the legend ofKing Arthur since the 12th century. There are 15National Parks, including theLake District in England,Snowdonia in Wales, andLoch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park in Scotland

TheBritish Museum in London with its collection of more than seven million objects,^[159] is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, and sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. On display since 1802, theRosetta Stone is the most viewed attraction. TheNatural History Museum, London was established byRichard Owen (who coined the term "dinosaur") to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.^[160] TheNational Museums of Scotland bring together national collections in Scotland.Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales comprises eight museums in Wales.National Museums Northern Ireland has four museums in Northern Ireland including theUlster Museum.

TheTitanic Belfast museum, a visitor attraction in theTitanic Quarter, east Belfast, Northern Ireland on the regenerated site of the shipyard whereTitanic was built, was opened to the public in 2012.^[161] The architecture is a tribute toTitanic itself, with the external facades a nod to the enormous hull of the ocean liner.

The firstMadame Tussauds wax museum opened in London in 1835, and today displays waxworks of famous people from various fields, including royalty (Princess Diana), historical figures (Henry VIII), sport (David Beckham), music (Freddie Mercury), literature (Charles Dickens), politics (Winston Churchill), television (Gordon Ramsay), and cinema (Michael Caine) among others.^[162]

The most senior art gallery is theNational Gallery inTrafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. TheTate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversialTurner Prize.^[163] TheNational Galleries of Scotland are the five national galleries of Scotland and two partner galleries. The National Museum of Art, Wales, opened in 2011.^[164]

TheBritish Library in London is thenational library and is one of the world's largestresearch libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.^[165] The library has two of the four remaining copies of the originalMagna Carta (the other two copies are held inLincoln Castle andSalisbury Cathedral) and has a room devoted solely to them. TheBritish Library Sound Archive has over six million recordings (many from theBBC Sound Archive, including Winston Churchill's wartime speeches.)

TheNational Library of Scotland in Edinburgh holds 7 million books, 14 million printed items (such as the last letter written byMary, Queen of Scots) and over 2 million maps.^[166] TheNational Library of Wales is the national legal deposit library of Wales, and holds over 6.5 million books, portraits, maps and photographic images in Wales.^[167]

Blue plaques are the oldesthistorical marker scheme in the world.^[168] The scheme was proposed by politicianWilliam Ewart in 1863 and was initiated in 1866 by theSociety of Arts. Since 1986 it has been run by English Heritage.^[168]

The first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorateLord Byron at his birthplace, 24 Holles Street,Cavendish Square, London. Events commemorated by plaques includeJohn Logie Baird's first demonstration of television at 22Frith Street, Westminster, W1, London, the firstsub 4-minute mile run byRoger Bannister on 6 May 1954 at Oxford University'sIffley Road Track, and a sweet shop inLlandaff, Cardiff that commemorates the mischief by a youngRoald Dahl who put a mouse in thegobstoppers jar.^[169]

From the time of theScientific Revolution, England and Scotland, and thereafter the United Kingdom, have been prominent in worldscientific andtechnological development. TheRoyal Society serves as thenational academy for sciences, with members drawn from different institutions and disciplines. Formed in 1660, it is one of the oldestlearned societies still in existence.^[170]

Sir Isaac Newton's publication of thePrincipia Mathematica ushered in what is recognisable as modernphysics. The first edition of 1687 and the second edition of 1713 framed the scientific context of the foundation of the United Kingdom. He realised that the same force is responsible for movements of celestial and terrestrial bodies, namelygravity. He is the father ofclassical mechanics, formulated as histhree laws and as the co-inventor (withGottfried Leibniz) ofdifferential calculus. He also created thebinomial theorem, worked extensively onoptics, and created alaw of cooling.

Figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science.John Napier introducedlogarithms in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations.Michael Faraday andJames Clerk Maxwell unified the electric andmagneticforces in what are now known asMaxwell's equations. Following his publication ofA Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865, Maxwell predicted the existence ofradio waves in 1867.^[172]James Joule worked onthermodynamics and is often credited with the discovery of theprinciple of conservation of energy.

NaturalistCharles Darwin wroteOn the Origin of Species and discovered the principle ofevolution bynatural selection.James Hutton, founder of modern geology, worked on the age of the Earth (deep time) which forms a key element of Darwin's theory. Other important geologists includeCharles Lyell, author ofPrinciples of Geology, who also coined the termPleistocene, andAdam Sedgwick, who proposed (and coined) the name of theCambrian Period.^[173]William Thomson (Baron Kelvin) drew important conclusions in the field of thermodynamics and invented theKelvin scale ofabsolute zero.Paul Dirac was one of the pioneers ofquantum mechanics. BotanistRobert Brown discovered the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (Brownian motion).John Stewart Bell createdBell's Theorem.Harold Kroto discoveredbuckminsterfullerene.

Other 19th- and early 20th-century British pioneers in their field includeJoseph Lister (antiseptic surgery),Edward Jenner (vaccination),Richard Owen (palaeontology, coined the termDinosaur),Florence Nightingale (nursing),Sir George Cayley (aerodynamics),William Fox Talbot (photography), andHoward Carter (modern archaeology, discoveredTutankhamun).

Scholarly descriptions of dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th-century England. Between 1815 and 1824,William Buckland discovered fossils ofMegalosaurus and became the first person to describe a dinosaur in a scientific journal. The second dinosaur genus to be identified,Iguanodon, was discovered in 1822 byMary Ann Mantell. In 1832,Gideon Mantell discovered fossils of a third dinosaur,Hylaeosaurus. Owen recognised that the remains of the three new species that had been found so far shared a number of distinctive features. He decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group, dinosaurs.^[174]

John Harrison invented themarine chronometer, a key piece in solving the problem of accurately establishinglongitude at sea, thus revolutionising and extending the possibility of safe long-distance sea travel.^[175] The most celebrated British explorers includeJames Cook,Walter Raleigh,Sir Francis Drake,Henry Hudson,George Vancouver,Sir John Franklin,David Livingstone,Captain John Smith,Robert Falcon Scott,Lawrence Oates andErnest Shackleton. Theaquarium craze began in Victorian England whenPhilip Henry Gosse created and stocked the first public aquarium atLondon Zoo in 1853, and coined the term "aquarium" when he publishedThe Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Sea in 1854.^[176]Robert FitzRoy pioneeredweather forecasting: the first daily weather forecasts were published inThe Times in 1861.^[177]

BiologistAlexander Fleming (left) discovered the world's firstantibiotic. PhysicianEdward Jenner (right) discovered the world's firstvaccine.

A crucial advance in the development of theflush toilet was theS-trap invented byAlexander Cumming in 1775 – it uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer.^[178] In 1824Charles Macintosh invented the modernraincoat; theMackintosh (mac) is named after him.^[178]William Sturgeon invented theelectromagnet in 1824.^[179] The first commercialelectrical telegraph was co-invented by SirWilliam Fothergill Cooke andCharles Wheatstone. They patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system, and it was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 betweenEuston andCamden Town in London.^[180]

Postal reformerSir Rowland Hill is regarded as the creator of the modernpostal service and the inventor of the postage stamp (Penny Black) — with his solution of pre-payment facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap transfer of letters.^[181] Hill's colleagueSir Henry Cole introduced the world's first commercialChristmas card in 1843.^[182] In 1851Sir George Airy established theRoyal Observatory, Greenwich, London, as the location of theprime meridian where longitude is defined to be 0° (one of the two lines that divide the Earth into the Eastern andWestern Hemispheres).George Boole authoredThe Laws of Thought which containsBoolean algebra. Forming the mathematical foundations ofcomputing, Boolean logic laid the foundations for theinformation age.

Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at eitherOxford orCambridge University, with laboratories such as theCavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and theClarendon Laboratory in Oxford becoming famous in their own right. In modern times, other institutions such as theRed Brick andNew Universities are catching up withOxbridge. For instance,Lancaster University has a global reputation for work inlow temperature physics.

Technologically, the UK is also amongst the world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of theIndustrial Revolution, with innovations especially in textiles, thesteam engine, railroads, machine tools andcivil engineering. Famous British engineers and inventors from this period includeJames Watt,Robert Stephenson,Richard Arkwright,Henry Maudslay and the 'father of Railways'George Stephenson. Maudslay's most influential invention was thescrew-cutting lathe, a machine which created uniformity inscrews and allowed for the application ofinterchangeable parts (a prerequisite formass production): it was a revolutionary development necessary for the Industrial Revolution. The UK has the oldestrailway networks in the world, with theStockton and Darlington Railway, opened in 1825, the first public railway to use steam locomotives. Opened in 1863,London Underground is the world's first underground railway.^[184] Running along theEast Coast Main Line between Edinburgh and London, theFlying Scotsman has been ranked the world's most famous steam locomotive.^[185]

EngineerIsambard Kingdom Brunel, another major figure of the Industrial Revolution, was placed second in a 2002BBC nationwide poll to determine the "100 Greatest Britons".^[186] He created theGreat Western Railway, as well as famous steamships including theSS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship, andSS Great Eastern which laid the first lastingtransatlantic telegraph cable.Josiah Wedgwood pioneered the industrialisation ofpottery manufacture.^[187] In 1820, Scottish road builderJohn McAdam invented "macadamisation" for building roads with a smooth hard surface. In 1901,Edgar Purnell Hooley added tar to the mix and named itTarmac (short for tarmacadam).^[188]

Probably the greatest driver behind the modern use ofconcrete wasSmeaton's Tower built byJohn Smeaton in the 1750s. The thirdEddystone Lighthouse (the world's first open ocean lighthouse), Smeaton pioneered the use ofhydraulic lime in concrete. ScotsmanRobert Stevenson constructed theBell Rock Lighthouse in the early 1800s. Situated 11 miles off east Scotland, it is the world's oldest surviving sea-washed lighthouse.Portland cement, the most common type ofcement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, was developed in England in the 19th century. It was coined byJoseph Aspdin in 1824 (he named it afterPortland stone), and further developed by his sonWilliam Aspdin in the 1840s.

The UK has produced some of the most famous ships in the world:Harland and Wolff in Belfast built theRMS Titanic as well as her sister shipsRMS Olympic andRMSBritannic; in ClydebankJohn Brown and Company built theRMS Queen Mary,RMS Queen Elizabeth andSS Queen Elizabeth 2; ships built in England include theMary Rose (KingHenry VIII's warship), theGolden Hind (SirFrancis Drake's ship for thecircumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580),HMS Victory (Lord Nelson's flagship at theBattle of Trafalgar in 1805), andHMS Beagle (ship used inCharles Darwin'sfive-year voyage). Other important British ships includeHMS Endeavour (James Cook's ship in hisfirst voyage of discovery),HMS Challenger (first global marine research expedition: theChallenger expedition), andDiscovery (carriedRobert Falcon Scott andErnest Shackleton in theDiscovery Expedition, their first successful journey to the Antarctic). The Royal Navy troopshipHMS Birkenhead is known for the first appearance of the "women and children first" protocol.^[189]

Since then, the UK has continued this tradition of technical creativity.Alan Turing (leading role in the creation of the modern computer), Scottish inventorAlexander Graham Bell (the first practical telephone),John Logie Baird (world's first working television system, first electroniccolour television),Frank Whittle (co-invented thejet engine) — powered by Whittle'sturbojet engines, theGloster Meteor was the first Britishjetfighter and theAllies' onlyjet aircraft to achieve combat operations during World War II,Charles Babbage (devised the idea of the computer),Alexander Fleming (discoveredpenicillin). The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations, providing inventions as diverse as theWorld Wide Web bySir Tim Berners-Lee, andViagra by British scientists at Pfizer'sSandwich, Kent.Sir Alec Jeffreys pioneeredDNA fingerprinting. Pioneers offertility treatmentPatrick Steptoe andRobert Edwards, achieved conception throughIVF (world's first "test tube baby") in 1978.^[190]

The prototypetank was constructed atWilliam Foster & Co. inLincoln in 1915, with leading roles played by MajorWalter Gordon Wilson who designed the gearbox and developed practical tracks and byWilliam Tritton whose company built it.^[192] This was a prototype of theMark I tank, the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during WWI.^[192] TheFirst Lord of the Admiralty,Winston Churchill, was credited by Prime MinisterDavid Lloyd George as being the driving force behind their production.Allan Beckett designed the 'Whale' floating roadway, crucial to the success of theMulberry harbour used in theinvasion of Normandy in WWII. In 1918,HMS Argus became the world's firstaircraft carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft, and in WWII,HMS Ark Royal was involved in the first aerial and U-boat kills of the war, as well as the crippling of the German battleship theBismarck in May 1941. In 1932, Cambridge engineerFrancis Thomas Bacon invented thealkaline fuel cell which is used to generate power forspace capsules andsatellites.^[193]

Introduced in 1952, thede HavillandComet was the world's first commercialjet airliner.^[194] Operated byBritish Overseas Airways Corporation (which merged with other British operators to form today'sBritish Airways), on 2 May 1952 the flight registered G-ALYS took off with fare-paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg.^[194]

In 1952,OXO (orNoughts and Crosses), created by computer scientistAlexander S. Douglas, is regarded as a contender for the firstvideo game.^[195] InOXO, the computer player could play perfect games ofnoughts and crosses against a human opponent.^[195] In the 1960s,John Shepherd-Barron invented thecash machine (ATM) andJames Goodfellow inventedPersonal identification number (PIN) technology, and on 27 June 1967, the first cash machine was established outside a branch ofBarclays Bank inEnfield, north London.Dolly the sheep, the first mammal successfullycloned from an adult somatic cell (by scientists at Roslin Institute in Edinburgh), became a celebrity in the 1990s.

TheIndustrial Revolution began in Britain due to the social, economic and political changes in the country during the previous centuries. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following theGlorious Revolution, in contrast to other European countries whereabsolute monarchy remained the typical form of government, can be said to be a factor in favouring Britain as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution.^[197] Aided by these legal and cultural foundations, anentrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain.^[198] Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain also contributed, with the country's extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation. Britain also had high quality coal.

HistorianJeremy Black states, "an unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself."^[197]

Pottery manufacturerJosiah Wedgwood was one of the most successful entrepreneurs of the Industrial Revolution. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes that helped drive the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Wedgwood created goods such assoft-paste porcelaintableware (bone china), which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.^[197] Credited as a pioneer of modernmarketing, Wedgwood pioneereddirect mail,money back guarantees,travelling salesmen, carrying pattern boxes for display,self-service, free delivery,buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.^[199] Other important figures in marketing and advertising in the 18th and 19th centuries wereThomas Chippendale, the Londoncabinet-maker who in 1754 produced the "first comprehensivetrade catalogue of its kind",^[200] andThomas J. Barratt, who became the first brand manager of a company (Pears soap) in 1865. In 1882, English actress and socialiteLillie Langtry was recruited by Barratt to become the poster-girl for Pears (which included putting her "signature" on the advertisements), as she became the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.^[201]

Described as "natural capitalists" by theBBC, dynasties ofQuakers were successful in business matters, and they contributed the Industrial Revolution in Britain. This included ironmaking byAbraham Darby I and his family; banking, includingLloyds Bank (founded bySampson Lloyd),Barclays Bank,Backhouse's Bank andGurney's Bank; life assurance (Friends Provident); pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys); the big three British chocolate companies (Cadbury,Fry's andRowntree); biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers); match manufacture (Bryant and May) and shoe manufacturing (Clarks). With his role in the marketing and manufacturing ofJames Watt's steam engine, and invention of moderncoinage,Matthew Boulton is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.^[202] In 1861, Welsh entrepreneurPryce Pryce-Jones formed the firstmail order business, an idea which would change the nature ofretail. Selling Welshflannel, he created mail order catalogues, with customers able order bymail for the first time, and the goods were delivered byrailway.^[203]

The UK has had a long history of car making. Some of the best known British brands areRolls-Royce,Bentley,Aston Martin,McLaren,Jaguar,Land Rover,MG, and theMini. Rolls-Royce was founded byCharles Stewart Rolls and SirFrederick Henry Royce in 1906. In addition to the company's reputation for superior engineering quality in its cars, Rolls-Royce Limited was known for manufacturing the high-powered "R" engines, including the iconicRolls-Royce Merlin aero engine which was used for many World War II aircraft.^[204] Bentley Motors Limited was founded byW. O. Bentley in 1919 inCricklewood, North London, and, like Rolls-Royce, is regarded as a British luxury automobile icon. Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin andRobert Bamford, and became associated with luxury grand touring cars in the 1950s and 1960s, and with the fictional British spyJames Bond. Jaguar was founded in 1922. TheJaguar E-Type sports car was released in 1961;Enzo Ferrari called it "the most beautiful car ever made".^[205] Jaguar has, in recent years, manufactured cars for theBritish Prime Minister. The company also holdsroyal warrants from QueenElizabeth II andPrince Charles. The Land Rover launched in 1948 and specialises infour-wheel-drive. Many models have been developed for theMinistry of Defence (MoD). The Mini was released by theBritish Motor Corporation in 1959 and became a 1960s cultural icon. The performance versions, the Mini Cooper, was a successful rally car. The distinctive two-door Mini was designed for BMC bySir Alec Issigonis. It has been named Britain's favourite car in a poll.^[206]

Forms ofChristianity have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for more than 1,400 years.^[207]Anglican churches remain the largest faith group in each country of the UK except Scotland, where Anglicanism is a small minority. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland is the national church in Scotland.^{[citation needed]} Following this isRoman Catholicism and religions includingIslam,Hinduism,Sikhism,Judaism, andBuddhism. TodayBritish Jews number around 300,000; the UK has thefifth largest Jewish community worldwide.^[208]

William Tyndale's 1520s translation of the Bible was the first to be printed in English, and was a model for subsequent English translations, notably theKing James Version in 1611. TheBook of Common Prayer of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language.

In 17th-century England, thePuritans condemned the celebration ofChristmas.^[209] In contrast, the Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglicans and Puritans."^[210] TheCatholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously orientated form. KingCharles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following theParliamentarian victory over Charles I in theEnglish Civil War, Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.^[211]

Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities; and for weeksCanterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways withholly and shoutedroyalist slogans.^[209] The book,The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and notes old English Christmas traditions: dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.^[212] TheRestoration ofKing Charles II in 1660 ended the ban.

Following the Restoration,Poor Robins Almanack contained the lines:

Now thanks to God for Charles return

Whose absence made old Christmas mourn

For then we scarcely did it know

Whether it Christmas were or no.^[213]

The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details Christmas observance and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.^[214]

In the early 19th century, writers imaginedTudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843,Charles Dickens wrote the novelA Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.^[215][216] Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation."^[217] Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, termed "Carol Philosophy",^[218] Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.^[219] A prominent phrase from the tale,"Merry Christmas", was popularised following its publication.^[220] The termScrooge became a synonym formiser, with"Bah! Humbug!" dismissive of the festive spirit.^[216]Tiny Tim says "God bless us, every one!" which he offers as ablessing atChristmas dinner. Dickens repeats the phrase at the end of the story; symbolic of Scrooge's change of heart.

The revival of theChristmas Carol began withWilliam Sandys'sChristmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen". In 1843 the first commercialChristmas card was produced byHenry Cole, leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public. The movement coincided with the appearance of theOxford Movement and the growth ofAnglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.^[221]

In the UK, theChristmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century, following thepersonal union with theKingdom of Hanover, byCharlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, wife ofKing George III. In 1832, the futureQueen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung withlights,ornaments, andpresents placed round it.^[222] After her marriage to her German cousinPrince Albert, a hugely influential image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle was published in theIllustrated London News in 1848, after which the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.^[223]

While2001 census information suggests that over 75% of British citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion,Gallup reports that only 10% of British citizens regularly attendreligious services.^[224] A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44% of British citizens believe in God, while 35% do not.^[225] Christmas and Easter are nationalpublic holidays in the UK.^[226] First broadcast over the Easter period in 1977, the two-partJesus of Nazareth television miniseries, starringRobert Powell as Jesus, was watched by over 21 million viewers in the UK. In 1844 SirGeorge Williams foundedYMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) in London. The oldest and largest youth charity in the world, its aim is to support young people to belong, contribute and thrive in their communities.^[227]The Salvation Army is a Christian charity founded byWilliam Booth and his wifeCatherine in London's East End in 1865. It seeks to bring salvation to the poor, destitute and hungry.^[228]

The UK has aparliamentary government based on theWestminster system that has been emulated around the world – a legacy of theBritish Empire. TheParliament of the United Kingdom that meets in theHouses of Parliament has two houses: an electedHouse of Commons and an appointedHouse of Lords, and any Bill passed requiresRoyal Assent to become law. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the United Kingdom: the devolved parliaments and assemblies inScotland,Northern Ireland andWales are not sovereign bodies and could be abolished by the UK Parliament, despite each being established following public approval as expressed in areferendum.^[229]

The UK's twomajor political parties are theLabour Party and theConservative Party, who between them won 532 out of 650 seats in the House of Commons at themost recent general election. Currently, the third biggest party in terms of seats in the Commons is theLiberal Democrats, or Lib Dems, which won 72 seats. TheScottish National Party (SNP) in Scotland is the forth largest, but only won 7 out of the 59 Scottish constituencies. There are also smaller parties in the Commons, likeReform UK andGreen Party, or regional parties likePlaid Cymru (Wales), theAlliance Party of Northern Ireland, theSocial Democratic and Labour Party,Democratic Unionist Party, andSinn Féin (Northern Ireland).

A prominent part of British political culture,Prime Minister's Questions – often referred to as "PMQs" – is held every Wednesday at noon when the House of Commons is sitting. ThePrime Minister spends around half an hour responding to questions fromMembers of Parliament (MPs). In questioning the policies of government ministers, MPAmber Rudd states "PMQs is central to our democracy."^[230] Due to the drama of the sessions, PMQs is among the best-known parliamentary business in the country. It is broadcast live onBBC News,Sky News andBBC Parliament television channels, as well as streamed online by many news outlets via numerous services, such asTwitch orYouTube.

The United Kingdom has anuncodified constitution, theConstitution of the United Kingdom, consisting mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, includingstatutes, judge-madecase law, and international treaties. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and constitutional law, theBritish Parliament can perform constitutional reform simply by passingActs of Parliament and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change.^[231]

British constitutional documents includeMagna Carta (foundation of the "great writ"Habeas corpus — safeguarding individual freedom against arbitrary state action), theBill of Rights 1689 (one provision grantingfreedom of speech in Parliament),Petition of Right,Habeas Corpus Act 1679 andParliament Acts 1911 and 1949. A separate but similar document, theClaim of Right Act, applies in Scotland. JuristAlbert Venn Dicey wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty".^[232] An advocate of the "unwritten constitution", Dicey stated English rights were embedded in the general Englishcommon law of personal liberty, and "the institutions and manners of the nation".^[233]

According to 2016 figures from theMinistry of Justice, there is a 35% chance of people in England and Wales being summoned forjury duty over the course of their lifetime. In Scotland the percentage is higher due to Scotland having a lower population as well having juries made up of fifteen people as opposed to twelve in England and Wales.^[234]

The 17th-century English patriotJohn Hampden was a leading parliamentarian involved in challenging the authority ofCharles I when he refused to be taxed forship money in 1637, and was one of theFive Members whose attempted unconstitutional arrest by the King in theHouse of Commons in 1642 sparked theEnglish Civil War. The wars established the constitutional rights of parliament, a concept legally established as part of theGlorious Revolution in 1688 and the subsequentBill of Rights 1689. Since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting.^[236] Hampden is annually commemorated at theState Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of theHouse of Commons are slammed in the face of themonarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.^[236]

Other important British political figures include SirEdward Coke, 17th-century jurist; the legal directive that nobody may enter a home, which in the 17th-century would typically have been male owned, unless by the owners invitation or consent, was established as common law in Coke'sInstitutes of the Lawes of England. "For a man's house is his castle, et domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium [and each man's home is his safest refuge]." It is the origin of the famous dictum, "an Englishman's home is his castle".^[237] SirWilliam Blackstone, 18th-century jurist, judge and politician best known for hisCommentaries on the Laws of England, containing his formulation: "It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer", a principle that government and the courts must err on the side of innocence,^[238]Emmeline Pankhurst, leading suffragette which helped win women theright to vote,William Wilberforce, leading parliamentaryabolitionist. An influential thinker in the history ofliberalism, 19th century philosopher, political economist and politicianJohn Stuart Mill justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control. A member of theLiberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage.^[239]

Robert Walpole is generally regarded as the first British Prime Minister (1721–1742). Twice Prime Minister, SirRobert Peel, founded the Conservative party (which was expanded byBenjamin Disraeli), and created the modern police force.^[240]Margaret Thatcher was the first female British Prime Minister (1979–1990). She became known as the "Iron Lady", a term coined by a Soviet journalist for her uncompromising politics and leadership style. In 1938,Neville Chamberlain believed he had secured "Peace for our time" with Germany, a year before WWII broke out.

English poetWilliam Cowper wrote in 1785, "We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free, They touch our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein."^[241]Thomas Clarkson described fellow British abolitionistJosiah Wedgwood's 1787 anti-slavery medallion, "Am I Not A Man And A Brother?", as "promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom".^[242] Following theSlave Trade Act 1807, Britain pressed other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties,^[243] and in 1839 the world's oldest international human rights organisation,Anti-Slavery International, was formed in London, which worked to outlaw slavery abroad; Wilberforce's abolitionist colleague Thomas Clarkson was the organisation's first key speaker.^[244] The1965 suspension of the death penalty for murder had been introduced to Parliament as aprivate member's bill bySydney Silverman MP.^[245] The world's largest human rights organisation,Amnesty International, was founded byPeter Benenson in London in 1961.^[246]

TheBritish honours system is a means of rewarding individuals' personal bravery, achievement or service to the United Kingdom. Candidates are identified by public or private bodies or by government departments or are nominated by members of the public. Nominations are reviewed byhonours committees, made up of government officials and private citizens from different fields, who meet twice a year to discuss the candidates and make recommendations for appropriate honours to be awarded by the King.^[247]

Historically aknighthood was conferred upon mountedwarriors. By theLate Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals ofchivalry, a code of conduct for the perfectcourtly Christian warrior. An example of warrior chivalry in medieval literature isSir Gawain (King Arthur's nephew and aKnight of the Round Table) inSir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century). Since theearly modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the UK isdamehood. The ceremony often takes place atBuckingham Palace, and family members are invited to attend.^[248]

A few examples of knights areSir Nicholas Winton: for "services to humanity, in saving Jewish children from Nazi occupied Czechoslovakia",^[249]Sir Elton John: for "services to music and charitable services",Sir Ridley Scott: for "services to the British film industry",^[250] andSir Richard Branson: for "services to entrepreneurship".^[251] Examples of dames are: actressDame Julie Andrews and singerDame Shirley Bassey: both for "services to the performing arts", actressDame Joan Collins: for "services to charity", andDame Agatha Christie: for "contribution to literature".^[252]

The suffix "shire" is attached to most of the names of English, Scottish and Welsh counties. Shire is a term for a division of land first used in England during the Anglo-Saxon period. Examples in England areCheshire,Hampshire,Nottinghamshire,Oxfordshire,Staffordshire,Worcestershire andYorkshire; in Scotland,Aberdeenshire,Perthshire,Inverness-shire andStirlingshire; and in Wales,Carmarthenshire,Flintshire andPembrokeshire. This suffix tends not to be found in the names of counties that were pre-existing divisions.Essex,Kent, andSussex, for example, have never borne a-shire, as each represents a formerAnglo-Saxon kingdom. SimilarlyCornwall was aBritish kingdom before it became an English county. The term "shire" is also not used in the names of thesix traditional counties of Northern Ireland.

Use of the Britishimperial system of measure, particularly among the public, is widespread in the United Kingdom and is in many cases permitted by the law.^[253] Human height and weight, long distances and speed are measured in imperial units by the vast majority of Brits.^[254] A Brit would normally give their weight as "12 and a half stone" rather than 80 kilograms, though younger people increasingly use kilograms rather than stone.^[255][254] Body height is usually given infeet andinches.^[253] Younger generations tend to use more metric units of measurement, creating a generational gap, for example in short distances and item weight.^[254] Although the majority of Brits now usedegrees Celsius to measure temperature, the use ofFahrenheit persists in older generations.^[254] Distances shown on road signs must be inmiles andyards, whilemiles per hour appear on speed limit signs and car speedometers.^[256]

Britain has been transitioning to metric since 1965, when the UK Government announced financial support formetrication with a target of 10 years.^[257] When the UK joined the European Economic Community in 1973, the UK re-affirmed its commitment to metrication,^[257] but in 2007, the European Commission abandoned completely the deadline for full metrication in the UK.^[258]

By custom and law, traffic in Britaindrives on the left. Research shows that countries driving on the left have a lower collision rate than those that drive on the right, and it has been suggested that this is partly because the predominantly better-performing right eye is used to monitor oncoming traffic and the driver's wing mirror.^[259] The name of thezebra crossing is attributed to BritishMP and subsequent Prime Minister,James Callaghan, who in 1948 visited theTransport Research Laboratory which was working on a new idea for safe pedestrian crossings. On being shown a design he is said to have remarked that it resembled a zebra.^[260] Located inBirmingham, theGravelly Hill Interchange's colloquial name "Spaghetti Junction" was coined by journalists from theBirmingham Evening Mail on 1 June 1965. In 1971, theGreen Cross Code was introduced to teach children safer road crossing habits. From 1987,Mungo Jerry's song "In the Summertime" featured in drink driving adverts. The building ofroundabouts (circular junctions) grew rapidly in the 1960s; there are now more than 10,000 in the UK^[261] TheCat's eye retroreflective safety device used in road marking was invented byPercy Shaw in 1933.

British cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. Historically, British cuisine meant "unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients, matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour, rather than disguise it".^[262] International recognition of British cuisine was historically limited to thefull breakfast and theChristmas dinner.^[263] However,Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenousCelts.Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. TheNorman conquest introduced exotic spices intoGreat Britain in the Middle Ages.^[263] TheBritish Empire facilitated a knowledge ofIndia's food tradition of "strong, penetrating spices and herbs".^[263]

Each country within the United Kingdom has its own specialities. Traditional examples ofEnglish cuisine include theSunday roast; featuring aroasted joint, usuallyroast beef (a signature English national dish dating back to the 1731 ballad "The Roast Beef of Old England"),lamb or chicken, served with assorted boiled or roasted vegetables,Yorkshire pudding andgravy. Thefull English breakfast consists ofbacon, grilled tomatoes, fried bread,baked beans, friedmushrooms, sausages and eggs.Black pudding andhash browns are often also included. It is usually served with tea or coffee. TheUlster version – Ulster fry – includessoda farl andpotato bread, with the BBC's Simon Majumdar calling it the UK's best full breakfast.^[264]

Fish and chips are also regarded as a national institution:Winston Churchill called them "the good companions",John Lennon smothered them in tomato ketchup, whileGeorge Orwell referred to them as a "chief comfort" of the working class.^[265] The meal was created in 1860 in the East End of London by a Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, who came up with the idea of combining fried fish with chips.^[265] Ablue plaque atOldham's Tommyfield Market marks the 1860s origin of thefish and chip shop andfast food industries.^[266] Variousmeat pies are consumed such assteak and kidney pie,shepherd's pie,cottage pie,Cornish pasty andpork pie.

A quintessential British custom,afternoon tea, is a small meal typically eaten between 4 pm and 6 pm. The most popular drink in Britain, tea became more widely drunk due toCatherine of Braganza. It is traditionally accompanied withbiscuits,sandwiches,scones,cakes or pastries (such asBattenberg cake,fruit cake orVictoria sponge). In his 1946 essay "A Nice Cup of Tea", authorGeorge Orwell wrote: "Tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country."^[267]McVitie's are the best sellingbiscuit brand in the UK, and the most popular biscuits to"dunk" in tea, with McVitie'schocolate digestives,rich tea andhobnobs ranked the nation's top three favourite biscuits.^[268] Other popular British biscuits includebourbons,custard creams,Jammie Dodgers,ginger nuts andshortbread.^[268] The first documented figure-shaped biscuits (gingerbread man) was at the court ofElizabeth I in the 16th century.^[269]

The first English recipe forice cream was published inMrs. Mary Eales's Receipts in London in 1718, and arguably the earliest reference to an edibleice cream cone, appears inCharles Elmé Francatelli's 1846The Modern Cook.^[270]The 18th-century English aristocratJohn Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich is best known for his links to the modern concept of thesandwich which was named after him. When he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread, others began to order "the same as Sandwich!".^[271] In the city of Leeds in 1767,Joseph Priestley made his "happiest" discovery when he inventedcarbonated water (also known as soda water), the major and defining component of mostsoft drinks.^[272] Carbonatedlemonade was available in British refreshment stalls in 1833, withR. White's Lemonade sold in 1845. By 1887 they sold a wide variety of soft drink flavours.Irn-Bru is the best-selling soft drink in Scotland. Invented by a Newcastle pharmacist in 1927,Lucozade is the No. 1 sports drink in the UK.

Sausages are commonly eaten asbangers and mash, insausage rolls or astoad in the hole.Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew. Popular cheeses includeCheddar andWensleydale. Sweet British dishes include scones,apple pie,mince pies,spotted dick,Eccles cakes,pancakes,sponge cake,trifle,jelly,custard,sticky toffee pudding,Tunnock's teacake, andJaffa cakes; the best-selling cake in the UK.Marmalade is a popular British spread for toast or sandwich: a spread famous for its association withPaddington Bear, a beloved bear in British culture that featured in the critically acclaimed filmsPaddington (2014) andPaddington 2 (2017).^[273]

Homebaking has always been a significant part of British home cooking. Influential cookbooks includeThe Experienced English Housekeeper (1769),Modern Cookery for Private Families (1845) by food authorEliza Acton that introduced the now-universal practice of listing ingredients and giving suggested cooking times for each recipe, andIsabella Beeton'sBook of Household Management (1861). Home-made cakes and jams are part of the traditional English villagefête. Filmed in bunting-draped marquees in scenic gardens, the success of the 2010s television showThe Great British Bake Off (which was inspired by the village fête) is credited with spurring a renewed interest in home baking, with supermarkets and department stores in the UK reporting sharp rises in sales of baking ingredients and accessories. A popular cake to bake,Victoria sponge (named afterQueen Victoria who enjoyed a slice with her tea), was created following the discovery ofbaking powder by English food manufacturerAlfred Bird in 1843, which enabled the sponge to rise higher in cakes.^[274]

Thehot cross bun is a popular British sweet bun traditionally eaten on Good Friday, but are now eaten all year round.^[275]Treacle tart was created after the invention ofgolden syrup by chemists working forAbram Lyle in 1885. With its logo and green-and-gold packaging having remained almost unchanged since then,Lyle's Golden Syrup was listed byGuinness World Records as having the world's oldestbranding and packaging.^[276]Scottish cuisine includesArbroath smokie andhaggis;Northern Irish cuisine features theUlster fry and thepastie andWelsh cuisine is noted forWelsh rarebit (often usingWorcestershire sauce) andcawl.Brown sauce is a traditional British condiment, with its best known varietyHP Sauce (named after and featuring an image of theHouses of Parliament on the label) a popular spread on chicken andbacon sandwiches. The ScottishAberdeen Angus is a popular nativebeef breed, accounting for almost 20% of the UK beef industry.^[277]Cavendish bananas were cultivated by SirJoseph Paxton in the greenhouses ofChatsworth House, Derbyshire in 1836.^[278] Named afterWilliam Cavendish, they make up the vast majority ofbananas consumed in the western world.^[278]

Thepub is an important aspect of British culture, and is often the focal point of local communities. Referred to as their "local" by regulars, pubs are typically chosen for their proximity to home or work, the availability of a particularbeer orale or a good selection, good food, a social atmosphere, the presence of friends and acquaintances, and the availability ofpub games such asdarts orsnooker. Pubs will often screen sports events, such asEnglish Premier League andScottish Premier League games (or for international tournaments, theFIFA World Cup). Thepub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s.

Initially created to draw in pre-literate drinkers,^[280] in 1393,Richard II introduced a law that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passingale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold.^[281] Most pubs still have decorated signs hanging over their doors. The owner or tenant (licensee) is known as the pub landlord or publican, while barmaids are a common feature in pubs. Alcoholic drinks served in pubs include wines andEnglish beers such asbitter,mild,stout andbrown ale.Whisky originated in Ireland and Scotland in theMiddle Ages:Irish whiskey andScotch whisky.^[282]

On Christmas Day, goose was previously served atdinner; however since appearing on Christmas tables in England in the late 16th century, theturkey has become more popular, withChristmas pudding served for dessert.^[283] The 16th-century English navigatorWilliam Strickland is credited with introducing the turkey into England, and 16th-century farmerThomas Tusser noted that by 1573 turkeys were common in theEnglish Christmas dinner.^[284] This custom gave rise to the humorous English idiom, "liketurkeys voting for Christmas".^[285] The turkey is sometimes accompanied withroast beef orham, and is served withstuffing,gravy,roast potatoes, mashed potatoes andvegetables. Invented in London in the 1840s,Christmas crackers are an integral part of Christmas celebrations, often pulled before or after dinner, or at parties.^[286]

Chinese restaurants and takeaways (in addition to Indian) are among the most popular ethnic food in the UK.^[287] Chinese takeaways are a common sight in towns throughout the UK, and many serve a pseudo-Chinese cuisine based on western tastes (such as chicken fried rice, chips and curry sauce).^[288]

The earliest recipe for thecrisp ("potato chip") is in English food writerWilliam Kitchiner's 1822 cookbookThe Cook's Oracle.^[289] In 1920, Frank Smith ofThe Smiths Potato Crisps Company Ltd packaged a twist of salt with his crisps in greaseproof paper bags, which were sold around London.^[290] Crisps remained otherwise unseasoned until an important scientific development in the 1950s. AfterArcher Martin andRichard Synge (while working in Leeds) received a Nobel Prize for the invention ofpartition chromatography in 1952, food scientists began to develop flavours via agas chromatograph, a device that allowed scientists to understand chemical compounds behind complex flavours such as cheese.^[291] In 1954, Irish crisps companyTayto produced the first seasoned crisps: Cheese & Onion.^[292]Golden Wonder (Smiths' main competitor in Britain) produced their Cheese & Onion version, and Smith's countered with Salt & Vinegar (tested first by their north-east England subsidiaryTudor) which launched nationally in 1967, starting a two-decade-long flavour war.^[293][294] The crisp market in the UK is led byWalkers (who introduced their own flavours in 1954), holding 56% of the market share.

TheQuakers, founded byGeorge Fox in 1650s England and described by the BBC as "natural capitalists", had a virtual monopoly in the British chocolate industry for much of the 19th and 20th centuries, led byCadbury of Birmingham,Fry's of Bristol andRowntree's andTerry's of York.^[295] Fry's produced the firstchocolate bar in 1847, which was then mass-produced asFry's Chocolate Cream in 1866.^[296] The chocolate barsCadbury Dairy Milk,Galaxy andKit Kat, are the three best selling bars in the UK.^[297]Cadbury Creme Eggs are the best selling confectionery item between New Year's Day and Easter in the UK, with annual sales in excess of 200 million. Sponsored by Cadbury, the annual children'sEaster egg hunt takes place in over 250 locations in the UK. Created in Doncaster, Yorkshire,Butterscotch boiled sweets is one of the town's best known exports. Created in Lancashire,Jelly Babies are among the British public's favourite sweets.After Eights are a popular after dinner mint. Astick of rock (a hard cylindrical stick-shaped boiled sugar) is a traditional British seaside sweet, commonly sold at seaside resorts throughout the UK such asBrighton,Portrush andBlackpool. A "99 Flake" (commonly called a "99") which consists of ice cream in acone with aCadbury Flake inserted in it, is a hugely popular British dessert.^[298]

Most of the major sports have separate administrative structures and national teams for each of thecountries of the United Kingdom. Though each country is also represented individually at the Commonwealth Games, there is a single 'Team GB' (for Great Britain) that represents the UK at theOlympic Games. With the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-centuryVictorian Britain, in 2012, IOC PresidentJacques Rogge stated; "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognized as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum".^[300][301]

Both in participation and viewing, themost popular sport in the UK is association football.^[302] The sport's origin can be traced toEnglish public school football games. Therules were first drafted in England in 1863 byEbenezer Cobb Morley, and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world.^[303] England is recognised as the birthplace of club football byFIFA, withSheffield F.C., founded in 1857, the world's oldest football club.^[304] Thehome nations all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most notably England'sPremier League andFA Cup, and theScottish Premiership andScottish Cup. The top three Welsh football clubs feature in the English league system. The first international football match was betweenScotland andEngland in 1872.^[305] Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted the1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament.^[306] The British television audience for the1966 World Cup final peaked at 32.30 million viewers, making it themost watched television event ever in the UK.^[53]

The four home nations have produced some of the greatest players in the game's history, including, from England,Bobby Moore andGordon Banks; from Northern Ireland,George Best andPat Jennings; from Scotland,Kenny Dalglish andJimmy Johnstone; and from Wales,Ian Rush andRyan Giggs. The first recipient of theBallon d'Or,Stanley Matthews was knighted while still a player. The EnglishPremier League (formed in 1992 by member clubs of the oldFootball League First Division) is the most-watched football league in the world,^[307] and its biggest clubs includeManchester United,Liverpool,Arsenal,Chelsea,Tottenham Hotspur andManchester City. Scotland'sCeltic andRangers also have a global fanbase.Leicester City's 2016 Premier League title win is regarded among the greatest sporting upsets ever.

The best-placed teams in the domestic leagues of England and Scotland qualify for Europe's premier competition, theUEFA Champions League (European Cup). Previous winners from the UK are Liverpool, Manchester United,Nottingham Forest, Celtic, Chelsea andAston Villa. TheUEFA Champions League Anthem, written byTony Britten and based on Handel'sZadok the Priest, is played before each game.^[308]Henry Lyte's Christian hymn "Abide with Me" is sung prior to kick-off at everyFA Cup Final, a tradition since1927.

The practice of "jumpers for goalposts" alludes tostreet/park football in the UK wherejumpers would be placed on the ground and used asgoalposts. This practice was referenced by singerEd Sheeran in his DVDJumpers for Goalposts: Live at Wembley Stadium as a nod to playing concerts at Wembley Stadium, the home of English football. Early references todribbling come from accounts of medieval football games in England.Geoffrey Chaucer offered an allusion to such ball skills in 14th-century England. InThe Knight's Tale (from theCanterbury Tales) he uses the following line: "rolleth under foot as doth a ball".^[309]

"Cwm Rhondda"

"You're Not Singing Any More" chants are sung to the Welsh hymn.

---

Problems playing this file? Seemedia help.

Football in Britain is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition offootball chants, which are one of the last remaining sources of an oral folk song tradition in the UK.^[310] Chants include "You're Not Singing Any More" (or its variant "We Can See You Sneaking Out!"), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early).^[311] Many teams in the UK have their own club anthem or have a song closely associated with them, for example "You'll Never Walk Alone" by Liverpool-based rock bandGerry and the Pacemakers, and "Local Hero" byDire Straits frontman andNewcastle United fanMark Knopfler, is played before the start of every Liverpool and Newcastle home game.^[312]

Throughout the UK,meat pies (as well as burgers and chips) is a traditional hot food eaten at football games either before kick-off or during half time. The purchase of afootball programme (a pre-match magazine produced by the home team that gives details on that day's game, including player profiles, recent form, interviews etc.) is also part of the 'ritual' of attending a football match in the UK. The Football Association dropped its ban onfloodlights in 1950, and night games attracted increasingly large crowds of fans–some of them unruly—as well as large television audiences. Architects built bigger stadia, and "their cantilevered constructions dwarfing mean streets, supplanted the cathedral as a symbol of the city's identity and aspirations".^[313]

The modern game ofgolf originated in Scotland, with theFife town ofSt Andrews known internationally as the "home of golf".^[314] and to many golfers theOld Course, an ancientlinks course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage.^[315] In 1764, the standard 18 hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes.^[316] Golf is documented as being played onMusselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records.^[317] The oldest knownrules of golf were compiled in March 1744 inLeith.^[318]

The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf,The Open Championship, first took place in Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860, and today it is played on the weekend of the third Friday in July.^[319] Golf's first superstarHarry Vardon, a member of the fabledGreat Triumvirate who were pioneers of the modern game, won the Open a record six times. Since the 2010s, three Northern Irish golfers have had major success;Graeme McDowell,Darren Clarke and four time major winnerRory McIlroy.^[320] The biennial golf competition, theRyder Cup, is named after English businessmanSamuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.^[321] SirNick Faldo is the most successful British Ryder Cup player.

In 1845,rugby union was created when the first rules were written by pupils atRugby School, Warwickshire.^[322] A former pupil of the schoolWilliam Webb Ellis, is often fabled with the invention of running with the ball in hand in 1823. Thefirst rugby international took place on 27 March 1871, played betweenEngland andScotland.^[323] By 1881 bothIreland andWales had teams, and in 1883 the first international competition the annualHome Nations Championship took place. In 1888, the Home Nations combined to form what is today called theBritish and Irish Lions, who now tour every four years to face a Southern Hemisphere team. The Wales team of the 1970s, which included a backline consisting ofGareth Edwards,J. P. R. Williams andPhil Bennett who were known for their feints, sidesteps and attacking running rugby, are regarded as one of the greatest teams in the game – all three players were involved inThe greatest try ever scored in 1973.Jonny Wilkinson scored the winningdrop goal for England in the last minute of extra time in the2003 Rugby World Cup final. The major domestic club competitions are thePremiership in England and theCeltic League in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and (since2010) Italy. Of Cornish origin, the chant "Oggy Oggy Oggy, Oi Oi Oi!" is associated with rugby union (and its personalised variant with football); it inspired the "Maggie Maggie Maggie, Out Out Out!" chant by opponents of Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher in the 1980s. In 1895,rugby league was created inHuddersfield,West Riding of Yorkshire, as the result of a split with the other Rugby code. TheSuper League is the sports top-level club competition in Britain, and the sport is especially popular in towns in the northern English counties of Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria. TheChallenge Cup is the major rugby league cup competition.

The modern game oftennis originated in Birmingham, England in the 1860s, and after its creation, tennis spread throughout the upper-class English-speaking population, before spreading around the world.^[325] MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield is credited as being a pioneer of the game.^[326] The world's oldest tennis tournament, theWimbledon Championships, first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July.^[327] Created in the Tudor period in the court of Henry VIII, the English dessertStrawberries and cream is synonymous with the British summer, and is famously consumed at Wimbledon. The tournament itself has a major place in the British cultural calendar. The eight-time Slam winner and Britain's most successful playerFred Perry is one of only seven men in history to have won all four Grand Slam events, which included three Wimbledons.^[328]Virginia Wade won three Grand Slams, the most famous of which was Wimbledon in 1977, the year of theSilver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II (the Queen attended Wimbledon for the first time since 1962 to watch the final). The 2013 and 2016 Wimbledon champion, Scotland'sAndy Murray, is Britain's most recent male Grand Slam winner. In 2021,Emma Raducanu became the most recent British female Grand Slam winner.

The'Queensberry rules', the code of general rules inboxing, was named afterJohn Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry in 1867, that formed the basis of modern boxing.^[329] Britain's first heavyweight world championBob Fitzsimmons made boxing history as the sport's first three-division world champion. The 1980s saw the emergence of heavyweightFrank Bruno who would become hugely popular with the British public. In the 1990s,Chris Eubank,Nigel Benn,Steve Collins andMichael Watson had a series of fights against each other in the super-middleweight division, drawing audiences of up to 20 million in the UK. Eubank's eccentric personality made him one of the most recognisable celebrities in the UK along with the cocky"Prince" Naseem Hamed. TheNigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan fight in 1995 drew 13 million. Other big draw fighters in the UK includedLennox Lewis,Joe Calzaghe andRicky Hatton.

The modern game ofcricket was created in England in the 1830s whenround arm bowling was legalised, followed by the historical legalisation ofoverarm bowling in 1864.^[330] In 1876–77,England took part in the first-everTest match against Australia. Influential to the development of the sport,W. G. Grace is regarded as one of the greatest cricket players, devising most of the techniques of modern batting.^[331] His fame endures;Monty Python and the Holy Grail uses his image as "the face of God" during the sequence in which God sends the knights out on their quest for the grail. The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth toThe Ashes in 1882 that has remained Test cricket's most famous contest, and takes place every two years to high television viewing figures. TheCounty Championship is the domestic competition in England and Wales. England have hosted theCricket World Cup five times, and are the reigning champions, having won in2019.

Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, theThoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use inhorse racing. Horse racing was popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, earning it the title "Sport of Kings".^[332] Named afterEdward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby,The Derby was first run in 1780. The race serves as the middle leg of theTriple Crown, preceded by the2000 Guineas and followed by theSt Leger. The name "Derby" has since become synonymous with great races all over the world, and as such has been borrowed many times in races abroad.^[333]

TheNational Hunt horse race theGrand National, is held annually atAintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winnerRed Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history. Red Rum is the best-known racehorse in the UK, named by 45% of Britons, withBlack Beauty (fromAnna Sewell's novel) in second with 33%.^[334]

Bolton companyJ.W. Foster and Sons's pioneeringrunning spikes appear in the book,Golden Kicks: The Shoes that changed Sport.^[335] They were made famous by 1924 100 m Olympic championHarold Abrahams who would be immortalised inChariots of Fire, the British Oscar winning film.^[335] Foster's grandsons formed the sportswear companyReebok in Bolton.^[335]

The1950 British Grand Prix was the firstFormula One World Championship race. Britain has produced some of the greatest drivers in Formula One, includingStirling Moss,Jim Clark (twice F1 champion),Graham Hill (only driver to have won theTriple Crown),John Surtees (only world champion in two and four wheels),Jackie Stewart (three-time F1 champion),James Hunt,Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time),Jenson Button,Lewis Hamilton (seven-time champion) and 2025 champion, Lando Norris. TheBritish Grand Prix is held atSilverstone every July. Also, the United Kingdom is home to some of the most prestigious teams in Formula One, includingMcLaren andWilliams. It is home to the main bases of 6 out of the 11 Formula 1 teams, Mercedes (Brackley), Alpine (Enstone), Red Bull (Milton Keynes), Mclaren (Woking), Aston Martin (Silverstone) and Williams (Grove). It is also home to the secondary bases of Haas (Banbury) and Cadillac (Silverstone).

Other major sporting events in the UK include theLondon Marathon, andThe Boat Race on theRiver Thames. The most successful malerower in Olympic history,Steve Redgrave won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games. Cycling is a popular physical activity in the UK. In 1888, inventorFrank Bowden founded theRaleigh Bicycle Company, and by 1913, Raleigh was the biggest bicycle manufacturing company in the world. TheRaleigh Chopper was named in the list of British design icons. In 1965Tom Simpson became the first British world road race champion, and in 2012Bradley Wiggins became the first BritishTour de France winner.Chris Froome has subsequently won the Tour de France four times (2013, 2015, 2016 and 2017). Welsh cyclistGeraint Thomas won in 2018. Sprint specialistMark Cavendish has won thirty-five Tour de France stages, putting him first on theall-time list.

InIce Dance, many of the compulsory moves were developed by dancers from the UK in the 1930s.^[337] At the1984 Winter Olympics,Jayne Torvill andChristopher Dean won ice dancing gold with the highest-ever score for a single programme. The pair received perfect 6.0 scores from every judge for artistic impression, and twelve 6.0s and six 5.9s overall.

At the 1988 Winter Olympics, ski jumperEddie "The Eagle" Edwards gained fame as an underdog. Eddie was portrayed byTaron Egerton in the 2016 biographical sports comedy-drama filmEddie the Eagle.

A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including association football, golf, tennis,boxing,rugby league,rugby union,cricket,field hockey,snooker,darts,billiards,squash,curling and badminton, all of which are popular in Britain. Another sport invented in the UK was baseball,^[338] and its early formrounders is popular among children in Britain.^[339] Snooker and darts are popular indoor games:Stephen Hendry is the seven time world snooker champion,Phil Taylor is the 16 time world darts champion. Snooker playerAlex Higgins (nicknamedThe Hurricane) and darts playerEric Bristow (nicknamedThe Crafty Cockney) are credited with popularising each sport.

BodybuilderReg Park was Mr Britain in 1946 and becameMr Universe in 1951, 1958 and 1965.^[340]Gaelic football is very popular in Northern Ireland, with many teams from the north winning theAll-Ireland Senior Football Championship since the early 2000s.William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modernOlympic Games, and in 1994, thenIOC PresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".^[341]

Participation in women's team sport (in addition to profile in the media) has seen a rapid increase in recent years. Popular women's team sports includeNetball Superleague formed in 2005, theFA WSL (women's football) formed in 2010 (Kelly Smith is seen as a leading figure in the game),Women's Six Nations Championship in rugby union, andWomen's Cricket Super League.

TheHighland games are held throughout the year in Scotland as a way of celebrating Scottish andCeltic culture and heritage, especially that of theScottish Highlands, with more than 60 games taking place across the country every year. Each December, theBBC Sports Personality of the Year is announced, an award given to the best British sportsperson of the year, as voted for by the British public. The public also votes for theBBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, presented to a non-British sportsperson considered to have made the most substantial contribution to a sport each year which has also captured the imagination of the British public. Recipients have includedPelé (after winning his third World Cup in 1970),Muhammad Ali (after regaining the heavyweight title in 1974),Jonah Lomu (for his performances at the 1995 Rugby World Cup),Ronaldo (for his comeback in winning the 2002 World Cup), andRoger Federer (for his record eighth Wimbledon in 2017).^[342]

Each of the four countries of the UK has a publicly fundedhealth care system referred to as theNational Health Service (NHS). The terms "National Health Service" or "NHS" are also used to refer to the four systems collectively. All of the services were founded in 1948, based on legislation passed by theLabour Government that had been elected in 1945 with a manifesto commitment to implement theBeveridge Report recommendation to create "comprehensive health and rehabilitation services for prevention and cure of disease".^[343]

The NHS was born out of a long-held ideal that good healthcare should be available to all, regardless of wealth. At its launch by the then minister of health,Aneurin Bevan, on 5 July 1948, it had at its heart three core principles: That it meet the needs of everyone, that it be free at the point of delivery, and that it be based on clinical need, not ability to pay.^[344] The NHS had a prominent slot during the2012 London Summer Olympics opening ceremony directed byDanny Boyle, being described as "the institution which more than any other unites our nation", according to the programme.^[345]Cancer Research UK,Alzheimer's Research UK andTogether for Short Lives are among hundreds of health charities in the UK.

Florence Nightingale laid the foundation of modernnursing with the establishment of hernursing school atSt Thomas' Hospital in London. It was thefirst secular nursing school in the world, now part ofKing's College London. Nightingale wroteNotes on Nursing in 1859. The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools.^[346] TheNightingale Pledge is taken by many new nurses in the US (but not the UK), and the annualInternational Nurses Day (12 May) is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms improved healthcare for all sections of society in the UK and around the world.^[347]

In the UK, about 40% of the population own a pet. The top pets in the UK for 2018 and 2019 were:^[349]

• Dogs: 25%
• Cats: 17%
• Rabbits, indoor birds, guinea pigs, hamsters: ≈1%
• Tortoises and Turtles: 0.7%
• Lizards: 0.6%

However, the population of pets in the UK declined from 71 million in 2013 (a significant peak) to 51 million in 2018.^[350] This decline has seen some reversal as a result of theCOVID-19 pandemic; an article published in May 2021 stated that a total of 3.2 million households in the UK had acquired a pet since the start of the pandemic, according to the Pet Food Manufacturers' Association.^[351]

Founded in 1824, theRoyal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world.^[352]

TheBritish Shorthair cat is the most popular pedigreed breed in its native country, as registered by the UK'sGoverning Council of the Cat Fancy (GCCF). The breed's broad cheeks and relatively calm temperament make it a frequent media star. The cat's profile reads: "When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a 'Cheshire cat smile'".^[353] There are almost one million horses and ponies in the UK, with popular native breeds includingClydesdale horse (used as drum horses by the BritishHousehold Cavalry),Thoroughbred (used in horse racing),Cleveland Bay (pull carriages in royal processions),Highland pony andShetland pony.

The UK's indigenous dog breeds include theBulldog,Jack Russell Terrier,Golden Retriever,Yorkshire Terrier,Cavalier King Charles Spaniel,Airedale Terrier,Beagle,Border Collie,Staffordshire Bull Terrier,English Cocker Spaniel,Scottish Terrier,Welsh Corgi,Bullmastiff,Greyhound,English Springer Spaniel andOld English Sheepdog.

The Kennel Club, with its headquarters in London, is the oldest kennel club in the world, and acts as a lobby group on issues involving dogs in the UK. Its main objectives are to promote the general improvement of dogs and responsible dog ownership.^[354] Held since 1891,Crufts is an annual dog show in the UK. The event takes place over four days in early March. In 1928, the very first winner ofBest in Show at Crufts was Primley Sceptre, a greyhound.

As amulti-national state, the UK has no single national costume. However, different countries within the United Kingdom have national costumes or at least are associated with styles of dress. Scotland has thekilt andTam o'shanter, andtartan clothing – its pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours – is a notable aspect ofGaelic culture.^[355] Atraditional Welsh costume withWelsh hat is worn by some women duringEisteddfodau. In England, the topic of a national costume has been in debate, since no officially recognized clothing is anointed "national". However, the closest to an English national costume can be the smock orsmock-frock in the Midlands and Southern England and themaud in Northern England.English country clothing is also popular in rural areas,flat caps andbrogue shoes also forming part of the country clothing.^[356]

Certain militaryuniforms such as theBeefeater or theQueen's Guard are considered to be symbolic of Englishness.Morris dancers or the costumes for the traditional EnglishMay dance are sometimes cited as examples of traditional English costume, but are only worn by participants in those events. Designed in 1849 by the London hat-makers Thomas and William Bowler, theBowler hat is arguably the most iconic stereotyped view of an Englishman (complete with Bowler and rolled umbrella), and was commonly associated with City of London businessmen. Traced back to the north of England in the 14th century, theflat cap is associated with the working classes in the UK.^[356] The flat cap has seen a 21st-century resurgence in popularity, possibly influenced by various British public figures wearing them, includingDavid Beckham,Harry Styles andGuy Ritchie, with clothing sellersMarks & Spencer reporting that flat cap sales significantly increased in the 2010s.^[358] In 1856William Henry Perkin discovered the firstsynthetic dye (Mauveine – a purple colour), which was suitable as a dye of silk and other textiles, helping to revolutionise the world of fashion.^[359]

Burberry is most famous for creating thetrench coat: they were worn by British soldiers in the trenches in World War I.^[360] Among various British youth subcultures,Dr. Martens boots (often referred to as DMs) have been the choice of footwear: in the 1960sskinheads started to wear them, and they later became popular amongscooter riders,punks, and somenew wave musicians. Malemods adopted a sophisticated look that included tailor-made suits, thin ties, button-down collar shirts,Chelsea boots andClarks desert boots.^[361]

British sensibilities have played an influential role in world clothing since the 18th century. Particularly during theVictorian era, British fashions defined acceptable dress for men of business. Key figures such as the futureEdward VII,Edward VIII, andBeau Brummell, created the modernsuit and cemented its dominance. Brummell is credited with introducing and establishing as fashion the modern man's suit, worn with atie.^[362] The use of a coloured and patterned tie (a common feature inBritish school uniforms) indicating the wearer's membership in a club, regiment, school, professional association etc. stems from the 1880oarsmen ofExeter College, Oxford, who tied the bands of their straw hats around their necks.^[363] TheWellington boot (first worn byArthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington) became a staple for outdoor wear.

The tradition of awhite wedding is commonly credited toQueen Victoria's choice to wear a white wedding dress at her wedding toPrince Albert in 1840, at a time when white was associated with purity andconspicuous consumption (because it was difficult to keep clean, and thus could not be worn by servants or labourers), and when it was the colour required of girls being presented to the royal court.^[364][365] The 1981wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer became one of the most famous dresses in the world, and was considered one of the most closely guarded secrets in fashion history.^[366]

Renowned for its blend of heritage and innovation, Britishfashion has played a significant role in shaping global trends; from the formal tailoring ofSavile Row to the rebellious subcultures ofmod andpunk. It reflects the complex historical social structures, regional materials and craftsmanship, and evolving cultural attitudes found throughout the UK.

London, one of the world's four fashion capitals, hostsLondon Fashion Week, part of the 'Big Four' fashion weeks.^[367] Organized by theBritish Fashion Council, it takes place twice a year, in February and September. Most "on-schedule" events are held atSomerset House, where catwalk shows and an exhibition feature over 150 designers. Many "off-schedule" events, like On|Off and Vauxhall Fashion Scout, occur at other central London venues.

British designers whose collections have been showcased at the fashion week includeVivienne Westwood,Alexander McQueen,John Galliano andStella McCartney. British models who have featured at the event includeKate Moss,Naomi Campbell,Jade Jagger,David Gandy,Cara Delevingne andRosie Huntington-Whiteley. For almost two decades,Princess Diana was a fashion icon whose style was emulated by women around the world.^[368]

Fashion designerMary Quant was at the heart of the "Swinging London" scene of the 1960s, and her work culminated in the creation of theminiskirt andhot pants.^[369] Quant named the miniskirt after her favourite make of car, theMini.^[370] The Swinging London fashion scene has featured in films, and was spoofed in theAustin Powers comedy series.^[371] The English fashion designerCharles Frederick Worth is widely considered the father ofHaute couture.^[372]

The United Kingdom as a whole has a number of national symbols, as do its constituent nations. TheUnion Flag is thenational flag of the United Kingdom. The first flag combined thecross of St George with thesaltire of Saint Andrew to represent theUnion of the Crowns in 1707.St Patrick's saltire was added when the Kingdom of Ireland was unified with Great Britain in 1801, and retained to represent Northern Ireland after partition in 1927.^[373] Wales has never been represented on the Union Flag, as in 1707 it was part of theKingdom of England. Similarly, theRoyal coat of arms of the United Kingdom only represents England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. England occupies the first and fourth quarters of the arms except in Scotland, when its arms take precedence.Britannia is the national personification of the UK, whileJohn Bull is a personification used in satirical contexts, and the national animals are the lion and the bulldog.

The UK does not have a floral emblem, but each nation does. TheTudor rose represents England, athistle Scotland, theflax flower andshamrock Northern Ireland, and theleek anddaffodil Wales. The rose, shamrock and thistle are engrafted on the same stem on thecoat of arms of the United Kingdom, and the rose, flax flower, thistle and leek are featured on thebadge of the Supreme Court. Another major floral symbol is theremembrance poppy, which has been worn in Britain since 1921 to commemorate soldiers who have died in war. In the weeks leading up toRemembrance Sunday they are distributed byThe Royal British Legion in return for donations to their "Poppy Appeal", which supports all current and former British military personnel.

A familiar sight throughout the UK, thered telephone box and Royal Mail redpost box are considered British cultural icons. Designed bySir Giles Gilbert in 1924, the red telephone box features a prominentcrown representing the British government. The post pillar box was introduced in the 1850s during the reign ofQueen Victoria followingSir Rowland Hill's postal reforms in the 1830s where thereduction in postal rates with the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black) made sending post an affordable means of personal communication.^[181]The red telephone box has appeared in British pop culture, such as inAdele's video "Hello", the front cover ofOne Direction's albumTake Me Home, and the back cover ofDavid Bowie's albumThe Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars.^[374]

The world's firstpostcard was received byTheodore Hook fromFulham, London in 1840.^[375] The first pillar boxes had the distinctive Imperial cypher of Victoria Regina. Most pillar boxes produced after 1905 are made of cast iron and are cylindrical, and have served well throughout the reigns ofGeorge V,Edward VIII,George VI andElizabeth II.^[376]

The sending and receiving ofgreeting cards is an established tradition in the UK, with card sending or card display in the home being an important part of British culture.^[377]

Sir Henry Cole devised the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time.^[378] Designed byJohn Callcott Horsley for Cole in 1843, theChristmas card accounts for almost half of the volume of greeting card sales in the UK, with over 600 million cards sold annually.^[377] Therobin is a common sight in gardens throughout the UK. It is relatively tame and drawn to human activities, and is frequently voted Britain's national bird in polls.^[379] The robin began featuring on many Christmas cards in the mid-19th century. The association with Christmas arises from postmen in Victorian Britain who wore red jackets and were nicknamed "Robins"; the robin featured on the Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering the card.^[380]

SendingValentine's Day cards became hugely popular in Britain in the late 18th century, a practice which has since spread to other nations.^[381] The day first became associated withromantic love within the circle ofGeoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition ofcourtly love flourished.^[382] In Chaucer'sParlement of Foules (1382) he wrote;For this was on seynt Volantynys day. When euery bryd comets there to chese his make.^[382] The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found in the 1784 English nursery rhymeRoses Are Red; "The rose is red, the violet's blue. 'The honey's sweet, and so are you. Thou art my love and I am thine. I drew thee to my Valentine."^[383]

In 1797, a British publisher issuedThe Young Man's Valentine Writer which contained scores of suggested sentimentalverses for the young lover unable to compose his own. In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the UK, despite postage being expensive.^[384] A reduction in postal rates (with the 1840 invention of the postage stamp, the Penny Black) increased the practice of mailing Valentines, with 400,000 sent in 1841.^[385] In the UK just under half the population spend money on gifts.^[386] Other popular occasions for sending greeting cards in the UK are birthdays, Mother's Day, Easter and Father's Day.^[378]

Each country of the United Kingdom has a separate education system. Power over education matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland isdevolved but education in England is dealt with by the British government since there is nodevolved administration for England.

Most schools came under state control in theVictorian era; a formal state school system was instituted after theSecond World War. Initially, schools were categorised asinfant schools, primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academicgrammar schools and more vocationalsecondary modern schools). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to becomecomprehensive schools. England has many independent (fee-paying) schools, some founded hundreds of years ago; independent secondary schools are known aspublic schools.Eton,Harrow,Shrewsbury andRugby are four of the best-known. The nature and peculiarities of these Public schools have frequently featured in British literature. Prior to 1999,^[387]corporal punishment was allowed in such schools, whilst the use of corporal punishment was outlawed in state schools in 1987.^[388] Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsoryschool uniforms. Allowances are almost invariably made, however, to accommodatereligious dress, including the Islamichijab andSikh bangle (kara).

Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility oflocal education authorities.

England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world: theUniversity of Cambridge,Imperial College London, theUniversity of Oxford andUniversity College London are all ranked in the global top 10 in the 2010QS World University Rankings. TheLondon School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.^[390] TheLondon Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by theFinancial Times.^[391]Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class).

TheNorthern Ireland Assembly is responsible foreducation in Northern Ireland. Schools are administered by five Education and Library Boards covering different geographical areas.

Scotland has a long history of universal provision ofpublic education which, traditionally, has emphasised breadth across a range of subjects rather than depth of education in a smaller range of subjects. The majority of schools arenon-denominational, but by law separate Roman Catholic schools, with an element of control by the Roman Catholic Church, are provided by thestate system. Qualifications at the secondary school andpost-secondary (further education) levels are provided by theScottish Qualifications Authority and delivered through various schools, colleges and other centres. Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in theScottish Parliament and theScottish Executive Education and Enterprise, Transport & Lifelong Learning Departments. State schools are owned and operated by thelocal authorities which act asEducation Authorities, and the compulsory phase is divided into primary school and secondary school (often calledhigh school, with the world's oldest high school being theRoyal High School, Edinburgh in 1505,^[392] which colonists spread to theNew World owing to the high prestige enjoyed by the Scottish educational system). Schools are supported in delivering the National Guidelines and National Priorities byLearning and Teaching Scotland.

First degree courses atScottish universities are often a year longer than elsewhere in the UK, though sometimes students can take a more advanced entrance exam and join the courses in the second year. One unique aspect is that theancient universities of Scotland award aMaster of Arts degree as the firstdegree inhumanities. TheUniversity of Edinburgh is among the top twenty universities in the world according to theQS World University Rankings 2011. It is also among theAncient Universities of Great Britain.

TheNational Assembly for Wales has responsibility foreducation in Wales. A significant number of students in Wales are educated either wholly or largely through the medium of the Welsh language, and lessons in the language are compulsory for all until the age of 16. There are plans to increase the provision ofWelsh medium education as part of the policy of promoting a fully bilingual Wales.

Scouting is the largest co-educational youth movement in the UK.^[393] Scouting began in 1907 whenRobert Baden-Powell, Lieutenant General in the British Army, held thefirst Scout camp atBrownsea Island in Dorset, England.^[394] Baden-Powell wrote the principles of Scouting inScouting for Boys in 1908.^[395] In July 2009, adventurerBear Grylls became the youngestChief Scout ever, aged 35. In 2010, scouting in the UK experienced its biggest growth since 1972, taking total membership to almost 500,000.^[393]

The UK (England in particular) has a relatively highpopulation density so housing tends to be more closely packed than in other countries. Thusterraced houses are widespread, dating back to the aftermath of theGreat Fire of London.^[396]

As the first industrialised country in the world, the UK has long been urbanised.^[397] In the 20th century, suburbanisation led to a spread ofsemi-detached and detached housing. After the Second World War, public housing was dramatically expanded to create a large number ofcouncil estates. There are many historiccountry houses andstately homes in rural areas, though only a minority of these are still used as private living accommodation.

In recent times, more detached housing has started to be built. Also, city living has boomed, with city centre populations rising rapidly. Most of this population growth has been accommodated in new apartment blocks in residential schemes in many towns and cities. Demographic changes (see below) are putting great pressure on the housing market, especially in London and theSouth East.

Historically most people in the United Kingdom lived either inconjugalextended families ornuclear families. This reflected aneconomic landscape where the general populace tended to have less spending power, meaning that it was more practical to stick together rather than go their individual ways. This pattern also reflectedgender roles. Men were expected to go out to work and women were expected to stay at home and look after the families.

In the 20th century theemancipation of women, the greater freedoms enjoyed by both men and women in the years following theSecond World War, greateraffluence and easier divorce have changed gender roles and living arrangements significantly. The general trend is a rise in single people living alone, the virtual extinction of theextended family (outside certain ethnic minority communities), and thenuclear family arguably reducing in prominence.

From the 1990s, the break-up of the traditional family unit, when combined with lowinterest rates and other demographic changes, has created great pressure on the housing market, in particular on accommodation for "key workers" such as nurses, otheremergency service workers and teachers, who are priced out of most housing, especially in theSouth East. Some research indicates that in the 21st century young people are tending to continue to live in the parental home for much longer than their predecessors.^[398]

When Brits were asked to rate their happiness yesterday on a scale of 1 to 10 in 2018, respondent's mean answer was 7.54 (ranked 'High') in 2018. Northern Irish respondents were ranked the happiest of the United Kingdom (with a mean of 7.74), followed by the English (with 7.54), then the Scots (with 7.52) and finally the Welsh (with 7.51).^[399]

However, only 25% of women and girls between the ages of 7 and 21 claim to be very happy, which has fallen from 41% in 2009. They claimed that it was due to the pressure from exams and social media, which exerted undue amounts of stress on them. In that category, the oldest were the least happy: 27% of young women aged 17 to 21 claimed they were not happy, compared to 11% in 2009. This negatively influenced their confidence by 61%, health by 50%, relationships by 49% and studying by 39%. 69% of respondents in that age group claimed school exams were the chief stressor, 59% felt pressure from social media was making them less happy, and compared to 5 years ago, more claimed they had experienced unkind, threatening or negative reactions on social media. The proportion of the population who knew someone withmental health issues rose from 62% in 2015 to 71% in 2018. Many young women and girls feel unsafe walking alone: over half aged from 13 to 21 have experienced harassment or know someone who has, and almost half feel unsafe using public transport.^[400]

The common naming convention throughout the United Kingdom is for everyone to have one or moregiven names (a forename, still often referred to as a "Christian name") usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex, and asurname ("family name").^[401] A four-year study by theUniversity of the West of England, which concluded in 2016, analysed sources dating from the 11th to the 19th centuries to explain the origins of the surnames in theBritish Isles.^[402] The study found that over 90% of the 45,602 surnames in the dictionary are native to the British Isles; the most common in the UK areSmith,Jones,Williams,Brown,Taylor,Johnson, andLee.^[402] Since the 19th centurymiddle names (additional forenames) have become very common and are sometimes taken from the name of a family member.

Most surnames of British origin fall into seven categories:^[403]

• Occupations e.g.Smith,Sawyer,Fuller,Brewer,Clark,Cooper,Cook,Carpenter,Bailey,Parker,Forrester,Head,Palmer,Archer,Hunt,Baker,Miller,Dyer,Walker,Woodman,Taylor,Turner,Knight,Slater,Mason,Weaver,Carter,Wright
• Personal characteristics e.g.Short,Brown,Black,Whitehead,Young,Stout,Long,White
• Geographical features e.g.Pond,Bridge,Camp,Hill,Bush,Lake,Lee,Wood,Holmes,Forest,Underwood,Hall,Brooks,Fields,Stone,Morley,Moore,Perry
• Place names e.g.Murray,Everingham,Burton,Leighton,Hamilton,Sutton,Flint,Laughton
• Estate For those descended from landowners, the name of their holdings, manor or estate
• Patronymics, matronymics or ancestral, often from a person's given name. e.g. from male name:Richardson,Jones (Welsh for John),Williams,Thomas,Jackson,Wilson,Thompson,Johnson,Harris,Evans,Simpson,Willis,Davies,Reynolds,Adams,Dawson,Lewis,Rogers,Murphy,Nicholson,Robinson,Powell,Ferguson,Davis,Edwards,Hudson,Roberts,Harrison,Watson, or female namesMolson (from Moll for Mary),Gilson (from Gill),Emmott (from Emma),Marriott (from Mary) or from a clan name (for those of Scottish origin, e.g.MacDonald,Forbes,Henderson,Armstrong,Grant,Cameron,Stewart,Douglas,Crawford,Campbell,Houston,Hunter) with "Mac"Irish andScottish Gaelic for son.^[404]
• Patronal from patronage (Hickman meaning Hick's man, where Hick is a pet form of the name Richard) or strong ties of religionKilpatrick (follower ofPatrick) orKilbride (follower ofBridget).

Virginia: usage as a girl's name was inspired byElizabeth I, the "Virgin Queen".

Jennifer is aCornish form ofGuinevere (Gwenhwyfar) pictured.

The nameJessica first appears inShakespeare's 1590s playThe Merchant of Venice.

Traditionally, Christian names were those ofBiblical figures or recognisedsaints; however, in theGothic Revival of theVictorian era, otherAnglo Saxon and mythical names enjoyed something of a fashion among theliterati. Since the 20th century, however, first names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base.

First names from the British Isles includeJennifer, aCornish form ofGuinevere (Welsh: Gwenhwyfar) fromArthurian romance, which gained recognition afterGeorge Bernard Shaw used it for the main female character in his playThe Doctor's Dilemma (1906): Jennifer first entered the top 100 most commonly used names for baby girls in England and Wales in 1934.^[405] The oldest written record of the nameJessica is inShakespeare's playThe Merchant of Venice, where it belongs to the daughter of Shylock. Jessica is the seventh most popular name for baby girls in England and Wales in 2015.^[406] First appearing in 13th century England,Olivia was popularised by Shakespeare's character in theTwelfth Night (1602).Vanessa was created byJonathan Swift in his poemCadenus and Vanessa (1713). While it first appeared in late 16th century England,Pamela was popularised afterSamuel Richardson named it as thetitle for his 1740 novel.

See also:

• Most popular names of England and Wales
• Most popular names of Northern Ireland
• Most popular names of Scotland
• Most common surnames in England
• Most common surnames in Northern Ireland
• Most common surnames in Scotland
• Most common surnames in Wales

• British humour
• Department for Culture, Media and Sport (deals with Culture for England)
• Minister for Culture and External Affairs (deals with Culture for Scotland)
• Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day)
• April Fools' Day
• Lord Kitchener Wants You
• List of venues in the United Kingdom
• Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)
• Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)
• Commonwealth of Nations – Culture