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Peruvian culture is the gradual blending ofAmerindian cultures with European and Asian ethnic groups. The ethnic diversity and ruggedgeography of Peru allowed diversetraditions and customs to co-exist. Peruvian culture has been deeply influenced by Native culture,Spanish culture, andAsian culture.[1][2][3] Other minor influences on their culture are Chinese, Japanese, and other European peoples.[4][5]
Peruvian literature has been shaped by the convergence of indigenousoral tradition and the technical resources ofwriting introduced by the Spanish. This fusion, from the very beginning, enabled the collection and expression of the diverse and complex cultural realities that came into conflict after theconquest.
Quechua andAymara literature, transmitted orally, was deeply linked toreligious, agricultural, romantic, festive, and funerary rituals. These characteristics are reflected in certain forms ofpoetry andprose, as seen in the early historical chronicles, including theComentarios Reales de los Incas[6] byInca Garcilaso de la Vega andNueva Crónica y Buen Gobierno[7] byFelipe Guaman Poma de Ayala. Also notable is the connection between the yaravíes and patriotic andromantic poetry, represented in the work ofMariano Melgar.[8]
During thecolonial and republican periods, the dominance of thecriollooligarchy in Peruvian society favored the adoption of European literary forms at the expense ofindigenous ones. In this context,neoclassical authors such as Manuel Ascensio Segura andFelipe Pardo y Aliaga emerged, dominating the literary scene until the late 19th century whenromanticism took hold through figures like Carlos Augusto Salaverry and José Arnaldo Márquez.[9] The crisis resulting from theWar of the Pacific paved the way formodernism, with exponents such asJosé Santos Chocano andJosé María Eguren.
In the 20th century,avant-garde movements gained strength, driven by magazines likeColónida andAmauta, the latter founded in 1926 byJosé Carlos Mariátegui, with notable collaborators such asCésar Vallejo.[10][11] Meanwhile,indigenism resurfaced in the poetry of Luis Fabio Xammar.[12] Theavant-garde movements fragmented into variouslyrical proposals, such as those ofXavier Abril, Alberto Hidalgo,Sebastián Salazar Bondy,Carlos Germán Belli, among others, opening new and diverse expressive fields.
In 19th-century Peruvian prose, thecostumbrismo of Manuel Ascensio Segura andRicardo Palma, along with themodernism ofManuel González Prada andJosé Santos Chocano, set the literary course. By the 20th century,indigenistprose reached some of its peak moments withCiro Alegría andJosé María Arguedas, whose influences extended to authors such asSebastián Salazar Bondy,Manuel Scorza, andJulio Ramón Ribeyro.Mario Vargas Llosa[13] andAlfredo Bryce Echenique,[14] while maintaining a realist approach, incorporated newnarrative techniques.
Inpoetry, prominent figures include Emilio Adolfo Westphalen,Jorge Eduardo Eielson,Carlos Germán Belli,Arturo Corcuera,Antonio Cisneros,Wáshington Delgado,Marco Martos, and Carmen Ollé. Incontemporary narrative, notable authors includeMiguel Gutiérrez,[15]Gregorio Martínez,Alonso Cueto, andGustavo Rodríguez, among others.
Peru's cultural heritage originates from the ancientAndean civilizations that emerged in its territory before the arrival of the Spanish.[16] The archaeological treasures ofPeru testify to a significant cultural development that occurred without contact with other extracontinental cultures.
The earliest artistic expressions with a high degree of intellectual and technological evolution are found in the sites ofChavín de Huántar andCupisnique, dated between the 9th and 4th centuries BCE.[17] These expressions include silver and goldjewelry,ceramics,architecture, andstone sculpture, reflectingsymbolic andreligious art.[18]
Between the 8th century BCE and the 1st century CE, theParacas Cavernas andParacas Necrópolis cultures developed. The former produced polychrome ceramics with religious representations, while the latter is known for its monochrome ceramics and complex, delicate textiles.
In the period between the 3rd century BCE and the 7th century CE, the urban cultures of theMoche inLambayeque and theNazca in the Río Grande valley inIca emerged.[19] Both cultures are notable for their advancedterrace agriculture,hydraulic engineering, andceramic,textile,pictorial, andsculptural productions.
TheWari civilization, between the 7th and 12th centuries, established inAyacucho, pioneered rational urban design, a concept that spread to other areas such asPachacámac,Cajamarquilla, andWari Willka. TheTiahuanaco culture, which developed on the shores ofLake Titicaca between the 9th and 13th centuries, is known for its monumental stonearchitecture andsculpture, facilitated by the use ofbronze.
TheChimú people, between the 14th and 15th centuries, built the city ofChan Chan in the Moche River valley inLa Libertad, and they excelled injewelry-making andhydraulic engineering.
TheInca civilization, which absorbed much of the cultural legacy of its predecessors, left significant evidence such as the cities ofCuzco, the architectural remains ofSacsahuamán andMachu Picchu, and a network of roads connectingCuzco with other regions of theempire.[20] The arrival of the Spanish led to a cultural blending reflected inPeruvian architecture, combining European styles with indigenous influences. After theRenaissance period, theBaroque reached a rich expression in buildings such as theConvent of San Francisco inLima and theIglesia de la Compañia inCuzco.
TheWar of Independence created a creative void that French-inspiredNeoclassicism attempted to fill. During the 20th century, architectural eclecticism was observed, with constructive functionalism emerging as a response, exemplified by thePlaza San Martín inLima.
Peruvian sculpture and painting developed from workshops founded by religious figures, influenced by the Sevillian Baroque school. This artistic movement can be seen in works such as the choir stalls of thecathedral and thefountain in thePlaza Mayor.
Artistic mestizaje was more evident in painting, which incorporated elements of native heritage. Examples include the portrait of the imprisoned Atahualpa by Damián de la Bastida y Mora and the works of artists such asMateo Pérez de Alesio,Angelino Medoro, Francisco Bejarano, Jesús de Illescas, and Joaquín Rodríguez.[21]
During the 17th and 18th centuries,Baroque dominated thevisual arts, while in the 19th century,French Neoclassical andRomantic currents found their best representatives inLuis Montero,Ignacio Merino, and Francisco Masías.[10]
In the 20th century, the foundation of theSchool of Fine Arts of Lima in 1919 marked a milestone in Peruvian sculpture and painting. Notable sculptors include Luis Agurto, Luis Valdettaro,Joaquín Roca Rey,Jorge Piqueras, Alberto Guzmán,Víctor Delfín, and Francisco Sánchez, and painters such asDaniel Hernández Morillo, Ricardo Grau, César Quispez Asín, andJosé Sabogal. The latter led the indigenist movement, a pillar of contemporary Peruvian painting, with representatives such asFernando de Szyszlo, Alberto Dávila,Armando Villegas, Sabino Springett, Víctor Humareda, Mario Alejandro Cuadros, Ángel Chávez, Milner Cajahuaringa, Arturo Kubotta,Venancio Shinki, Alberto Quintanilla, Germán Chávez,Tilsa Tsuchiya, David Herskowitz,Óscar Allain, and Carlos Revilla.[22]
Among the most widespread crafts inPeru areceramics, both artistic and utilitarian,carving,silverwork,leather embossing,straw weaving, andtextile work, with colorfulalpaca wool fabrics standing out.
Peruvian architecture is a conjunction of European styles exposed to the influence of indigenous imagery. Two of the most well-known examples of the Early Colonial period are theCathedral of Cusco and theChurch of Santa Clara of Cuzco. After this period, the mestization reached its richer expression in theBaroque. Some examples of thisBaroque period are theConvento de San Francisco, theIglesia de la Compañía, and the facade of theUniversity of Cuzco and, overall, the churches ofSan Agustín andSanta Rosa ofArequipa.
Although these later examples are rarer; theIndependence War left a creative emptiness that was filled by theNeoclassicism. The 20th century was characterized by theeclectic architecture, which has been in stark opposition toconstructive functionalism. Its considerable example isSan Martin Plaza inLima.
The pre-Hispanic Andean cultures of Peru were distinguished by their rich tradition in artistic expressions, especially in music. Most communal agricultural activities were accompanied by music and songs, known inQuechua astaqui.[23] The ethnic diversity ofancient Peru resulted in the coexistence of various traditions and customs, which have persisted over time and have been fundamental to the development of post-Hispanic Peruvian folklore.
Today, various musical expressions, such asdance and song, popular festivals (both religious and non-religious),handicrafts,gastronomy, and other regionally varied activities, are significant aspects of Peruvian and Latin American cultural heritage.[24]
Pre-Hispanic Andean musicians primarily usedwind instruments, such as thequena,pinkillo,erke,antara orsiku (also known aszampoña), and thepututo. They also employedpercussion instruments like thetinya (hand drum),pomatinyas (made frompuma skin), andrunatinyas (made fromhuman skin), used in battles, as well as thewankar, a large drum.
With the arrival of the Spanish, European instruments likeharps,guitars,vihuelas,bandurrias, andlutes were introduced. The combination of these instruments with indigenous ones led to the creation of mestizo instruments, such as the Andean harp and thecharango, which is made from the shell of thearmadillo.[25]
Cultural blending was not limited to the interaction betweenindigenous andEuropean cultures; African influence is also evident in the rhythms and percussion instruments. This influence is reflected in musical forms such asfestejo andzamacueca.
Among the native dances, those related toagricultural work,hunting, andwarfare are prominent.[26] Some of thesechoreographies show Christian influence. Two of the most representative Andean dances are thekashua, communal in nature, performed in groups in open spaces, and thewayño orhuayno, a "salon dance" performed in pairs in enclosed spaces. Other Andean-origin dances include theyaraví andtriste, which are songs with typically very sentimental lyrics.
Ritual dances include theachocallo,pinkillada,llamerada (imitating the movement ofllamas), andkullawada (of the spinners). Hunting-related dances includellipi-puli andchoq'elas, colorful highland dances associated withvicuña hunting.
Warfare dances include thechiriguano, ofAymara origin;chatripuli, which satirizes Spanish royalist soldiers; andkena-kenas, referring to the Chilean soldiers who occupiedPeru during theWar of the Pacific (1879). Carnival dances are also significant, a Western festival that in thePeruvian Andes coincides with theharvest season; manyrural communities celebrate withancestral rites and mestizo dances, marking the initiation of youth and, in many cases, the formation of new couples.[27]
The most internationally recognized Peruvian dance is themarinera norteña, which represents the courtship of a man towards a young woman.[28] There are local variations of this dance inLima and other regions of the country.
Popular festivals, which result from thetraditions and legends of each town, bring together music, dance, typical foods, and drinks. In addition to religious festivals, such asChristmas,Corpus Christi, orHoly Week, there are others that express the syncretism between indigenous andChristian beliefs, such as thealasitas fairs (anAymara word that some scholars interpret as "buy me"), which combine a craft and miniature fair with dances, foods, and a mass.[29] Another important festival is the pilgrimage ofQ'oyllor-riti (Cusco), which integrates the ancient worship of theapus (tutelary deities of themountains) with apilgrimage to a Christian sanctuary, in a walk up to a snow-capped peak over 5,000 meters above sea level.
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Football is the most popular sport in Peru.[30][31]Football in Peru is governed by thePeruvian Football Federation (PFF), which organizes themen's andwomen's national teams. Football legends from Peru includeAlejandro Villanueva,Teodoro Fernández,Valeriano López,Alberto Terry,Hugo Sotil,César Cueto,Roberto Challe,Héctor Chumpitaz andTeófilo Cubillas, Peru's most successful striker in the World Cup finals with ten goals,Nolberto Solano.
Current renowned players include defenderCarlos Zambrano (Rubin Kazan), midfielderJuan Manuel Vargas (Universitario) and strikersClaudio Pizarro (Werder Bremen),Paolo Guerrero (Flamengo) andJefferson Farfán (Lokomotiv Moscow).Alianza Lima,Sporting Cristal andUniversitario de Deportes are the biggest teams in Peru.[32][33] In 2003, Cienciano won theCopa Sudamericana after defeating Argentinian clubRiver Plate,[34] and then proceeded to beat Latin American powerhouseBoca Juniors (also from Argentina) in theRecopa Sudamericana played inMiami.[35][36] Sporting Cristal was finalist in the Copa Libertadores de América 1997, South America's most important football tournament. Also Universitario de Deportes, but in 1972.
Achievements from thePeru national football team include competing at theFIFA World Cup, in1930,1970 (quarterfinalists),1978, and1982, beingTeófilo Cubillas, among the top 10 goal scorers in the history of theWorld Cup and having a record as the only player to score 5 goals in 2 different World Cups. The national team won two Copa América's in1939 and1975.
Claudio Pizarro holds the record as the top scorer from a foreign country in the history ofBundesliga.Paolo Guerrero holds the record as the current all-time top scorer in the history of theCopa América still active, finishing as the top scorer in all three of these tournaments (2011,2015 and2019), which is also a record.
Achievements from thePeru women's national football team include finishing third place at the1998 Sudamericano Femenino, and finishing fourth place at the2003 Sudamericano Femenino.
Women'svolleyball is a popular and also successful sport in Peru (silver medal in the1988 Summer Olympics, runners-up in the Volleyball World Championship, and 12 times South American champion).[37][38]
Tennis,surfing andrugby inPeru are minor but growing sports.
Alejandro "Alex" Olmedo Rodríguez (March 24, 1936 – December 9, 2020) was a tennis player from Peru with American citizenship. He was listed by the USTA as a "foreign" player for 1958, but as a U.S. player for 1959.[3] He helped win the Davis Cup for the United States in 1958 and was the No. 2 ranked amateur in 1959. Olmedo won two Majors in 1959 (Australia and Wimbledon) and the U.S. Pro Championships in 1960, and was inducted into the Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987.
Sofía Mulánovich is the first South American ever to win theSurfing World Title, which she did in 2004. She is also the first Peruvian surfer ever to win aWorld Surf LeagueWorld Championship Tour event. In 2004, she won three out of the six World Championship Tour events, and finished the season as World Champion. Felipe Pomar was also a world champion.
Due to the rich variety and the harmony of its flavor and the food used,[39]Peruvian food is constantly winning internationally and the chefs often have international recognition and distinction.[40][41] One notable element is the constant new innovations and new dishes, especially those that incorporate the food found by experimentation. Each region maintains its rich cuisine by its food having a mix of colors and ingredients.[42]
The great variety of native foods, such ascorn,tomatoes,potatoes,uchu orchili pepper,oca,olluco,avocado, and fruits likecherimoya,lúcuma, andpineapple (ananás), along with animals such astarucas (deer),llamas, andguinea pigs, led to the creation of new dishes and methods of preparation when combined with European and Moorish culinary traditions. The successive arrivals of Africans and Chinese also influenced the development ofcriollo cuisine, which is now varied and rich.
Among the most representative dishes ofPeruvian cuisine areceviche (fish and seafood marinated inlime juice),chupe (soup) ofshrimp,anticuchos (grilled beef heart skewers),olluco con charqui, the Andeanpachamanca (meats,tubers, andbeans cooked in astone oven),lomo saltado (stir-fried beef withtomatoes andonions, served withfried potatoes andrice) of Chinese influence, andpicante de cuy. These dishes are often accompanied by typical drinks such aschicha de jora (corn fermented and sun-dried), with very low alcohol content, as well as non-alcoholicchicha made frompurple corn orpeanuts.[43]