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Theculture of New Zealand is a synthesis ofindigenousMāori, colonialBritish, and other cultural influences. The country's earliest inhabitants brought with them customs and language fromPolynesia, and during the centuries of isolation, developed their own Māori andMoriori cultures.British colonists in the 19th century broughtWestern culture and had a dramatic effect on the indigenous inhabitants, spreading Western religious traditions and theEnglish language. Over time, a distinctPākehā or New Zealand European culture emerged.
More recent immigration from the Pacific, East Asia, and South Asia has added to the cultural diversity in New Zealand. The biggest cultural influence in New Zealand remains Western, with a strong focus on democracy andegalitarianism. Māori culture continues to be an essential part of thenational identity, with ongoing efforts to recognise and honour theMāori language and Māori traditions.
Ministry for Culture and Heritage showed 'that the arts and creative sector contributed $14.9 billion to New Zealand'sGDP for the year ending March 2022', this is 4.2% of the total economy and is the highest since 2000 when recording began. As of March 2022, 115,000 people were primarily employed in the creative sector (32% self-employed).[1]
Polynesian explorers reached the islands between 1250 and 1300. Over the ensuing centuries of Polynesian expansion and settlement,Māori culture developed from its Polynesian roots. Māori established separate tribes, built fortified villages (pā), hunted and fished, traded commodities, developed agriculture, arts and weaponry, and kept a detailed oral history. At some point, a group of Māori migrated toRēkohu, now known as theChatham Islands, where they developed their distinctMoriori culture.[2] Regular European contact began from 1800, andBritish immigration proceeded rapidly, especially from 1855. European colonists had a dramatic effect on the Māori, bringingChristianity, advanced technology, theEnglish language, numeracy and literacy. In 1840 Māori chiefs signed theTreaty of Waitangi, intended to enable the tribes to live peacefully with the colonists. However, after several incidents, theNew Zealand Wars broke out from 1845, with Māori suffering a loss of land, partly through confiscation, but mainly through widespread and extensive land sales. Māori retained their identity, mostly choosing to live separately from settlers and continuing to speak and writeMāori. With mass migration from Europe, a high Māori death rate and low life expectancy for Māori women, the indigenous population figure dropped between 1850 and 1930, becoming a minority.
European New Zealanders (Pākehā), despite their location far from Europe, retained strong cultural ties to "Mother England".[3] These ties were weakened by the demise of the British Empire and loss of special access to British meat and dairy markets. Pākehā began to forge a separate identity influenced by their pioneering history, a rural lifestyle and New Zealand's unique environment. Pākehā culture became prevalent after the wars, but after sustained political efforts, biculturalism and theTreaty of Waitangi became part of the school curriculum in the late 20th century, to promote understanding between Māori and Pākehā.
More recently, New Zealand culture has been broadened by globalisation and immigration from thePacific Islands,East Asia andSouth Asia. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are apparent, withPasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event inAuckland.
The development of a New Zealandidentity and national character, separate from the British colonial identity, is most often linked with the period surrounding World War I, which gave rise to the concept of theAnzac spirit.[4] Many citizens prefer to minimise ethnic divisions,[citation needed] simply calling themselvesNew Zealanders or, informally, "Kiwis".New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance,Waitangi Day andAnzac Day, and also celebrates holidays during or close to the anniversaries of the founding dates of each province.[5]
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Pākehā culture (usually synonymous with New Zealand European culture) derives mainly from that of the European (mostly British) settlers who colonised New Zealand in the 19th century. Europeans migrated to New Zealand in increasing numbers from 1855. TheTreaty of Waitangi in 1840 formed the basis of the establishment of British rule in New Zealand.[7] New Zealand became partly self-governing in 1852 with the establishment of its own Parliament. There was conflict between Māori and European settlers especially between 1863 and 1864 which resulted in land being confiscated from the defeated tribes.[8]
Until about the 1950s many Pākehā saw themselves as British people, and retained strong cultural ties to "Mother England".[3] Yet there was a common perception that people born in New Zealand were likely to be physically stronger and more adaptable than people in Britain.[9] The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[6][10] Another distinctive trait of Pākehā culture has been theegalitarian tradition, as opposed to theBritish class system.[11] Within Pākehā culture there are also sub-cultures derived from Irish, Italian and other European groups,[12] as well as various non-ethnic subcultures.
One of the goals of Pākehā anti-racist groups of the 1980s was to enable Pākehā to see their own culture as such, rather than thinking what they did was normal and what other people did was 'ethnic' and strange.[13] Some argue that belief in the 'absence' of culture in New Zealand is a symptom ofwhite privilege, allowing members of a dominant group to see their culture as 'normal' or 'default', rather than as a specific position of relative advantage.[14]
From the 1980s Pākehā began to further explore their distinctive traditions and to argue that New Zealanders had a culture which was neither Māori nor British. There was an interest in "Kiwiana"—items from New Zealand's heritage that are seen as representing iconic Kiwi elements, such as thepōhutukawa (New Zealand Christmas tree),pāua-shell ash-tray,Buzzy Bee,Pineapple Lumps,gumboots andjandals.[15][16]
TheMāori are the indigenous inhabitants of New Zealand. They originated settlers from easternPolynesian islands, who arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe voyages at some time between 1250 and 1300.[17][18] Māori settled the islands and developed a distinct culture over several hundred years. Oral history tells of a long voyage fromHawaiki (the mythical homeland in tropical Polynesia) in large ocean-going canoes (waka).[19]Māori mythology is a distinctive corpus of gods and heroes, sharing some Polynesian motifs. Significant figures areRanginui and Papatūānuku,Māui, andKupe.[19]
Central to many cultural events is themarae,[20] where families and tribes gather for special occasions, such aspōwhiri ortangi. Māori often call themselves "tangata whenua" (people of the land), placing particular importance on a lifestyle connected to land and sea.[21]
The distinct values, history, and worldview of Māori are expressed through traditional arts and skills such ashaka,tā moko,waiata (music), carving, weaving, andpoi. The concept oftapu (meaning taboo or sacred[22]) is also a strong force in Māori culture, applied to objects, people, or even mountains.[23]
Ethnic communities within New Zealand retain features of their own cultures, and these have, in some areas, spread to become popular with the general population. Settler groups from many cultures added to the make-up of the country, with many groups concentrated around specific geographic areas. These includeDalmatian settlers inNorthland,Danish settlers in inlandHawke's Bay, andSouthern Chinese andLevantine settlers inOtago. These added to larger-scale Pākehā settlement which itself varied between English settlers (e.g., inCanterbury), Irish settlers (e.g., on the South IslandWest Coast), and Scottish settlers (e.g., inOtago andSouthland).
From the mid-20th century on, waves of immigrants have entered the country from different ethnic backgrounds, notable Dutch and central Europeans during the 1950s, Pacific Islanders since the 1960s, and northern Chinese, Indians, and southeast Asians since the 1980s.[24] Various aspects of each culture have added to New Zealand culture;Chinese New Year is celebrated for example, especially in Auckland and Dunedin,[25] andSouth Auckland has strong Samoan cultural links. To celebrate its diverse Pacific cultures, the Auckland region hosts several Pacific Island festivals. Two of the major ones arePolyfest, which showcases performances of the secondary school cultural groups in the Auckland region,[26] andPasifika, a festival that celebrates Pacific island heritage through traditional food, music, dance, and entertainment.[27]
The popular music style ofUrban Pasifika also has its origins in the New Zealand Pacific Island community, and has become a major strand in New Zealand music culture. The annualPacific Music Awards recognise the contribution to New Zealand music made by Pacific Island musicians and musical styles. Pacific island heritage is also celebrated in much of New Zealand's fine art, with notable artists such asFatu Feu'u,Lily Laita,John Pule,Yuki Kihara, andMichel Tuffery.
New Zealand has three official languages.English is the primary official language with its use unrestricted anywhere. TheMāori language andNew Zealand Sign Language also have official status in certain contexts, as defined by their respective statutes.[28] Other languages are also spoken in New Zealand.
New Zealand English is close toAustralian English in pronunciation, but has several differences often overlooked by people from outside these countries. The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-"i" sound (as in "kit") has centralised towards theschwa sound (the "a" in "comma" and "about"); the short-"e" sound (as in "dress") has moved towards the short-"i" sound; and the short-"a" sound (as in "trap") has moved to the short-"e" sound.[29] Some of these differences show New Zealand English to have more affinity with the English of southern England than Australian English does. Several of the differences also show the influence of Māori speech. The New Zealand accent also has some Scottish and Irish influences from the large number of settlers from those places during the 19th century. At the time of the 2013 census, English was spoken by 96.1% of the total population.[30]
An Eastern Polynesian language,te reo Māori is closely related toTahitian andCook Islands Māori; slightly less closely toHawaiian andMarquesan; and more distantly to the languages of Western Polynesia, includingSamoan,Niuean andTongan. The Māori language went into decline in terms of use following European colonisation, but since the 1970s efforts have been made to reverse this trend. These include the granting of official language status through theMāori Language Act 1987,[28] aMāori language week and aMāori television channel. The 2013 census found that Māori was spoken by 3.7% of the population.[30] Beginning in about 2015, thelanguage underwent a revival as it became increasingly popular, as a common national heritage and shared cultural identity, even among New Zealanders without Māori roots. Surveys from 2018 indicated that "the Māori language currently enjoys a high status in Māori society and also positive acceptance by the majority of non-Māori New Zealanders".[31][32]
There are distinct dialects of te reo Māori, 'mita'.[33]
- In Northland with Ngāpuhi, instead of hearing whakarongo, to listen – with a sharp "F" sound at the beginning – you are more likely to hear it being pronounced as "hakarongo".
- Tūhoe speakers change the "ng" sound into an "n" sound and whakarongo becomes "whakarono".
- Ngāi Tahu – Kai Tahu – in the South Island change the "ng" sound into a "k" sound and it becomes: "whakaroko".
- In Whanganui/Taranaki, the "wh" sound becomes a glottal stop – where the "h" is lost altogether, so whakarongo becomes: "w'akarongo". (Michael Neilson, The Herald 2020)[33]
New Zealand Sign Language has its roots in British Sign Language (BSL), and may be technically considered a dialect of British, Australian and New Zealand Sign Language (BANZSL). There are 62.5% similarities found in British Sign Language and NZSL, compared with 33% of NZSL signs found in American Sign Language. Like other natural sign languages, it was devised by and for Deaf people, with no linguistic connection to a spoken or written language, and it is fully capable of expressing anything a fluent signer wants to say. It uses more lip-patterns in conjunction with hand and facial movement to cue signs than BSL, reflecting New Zealand's history of oralist education of deaf people. Its vocabulary includes Māori concepts such as marae and tangi, and signs for New Zealand placenames. New Zealand Sign Language became an official language of New Zealand in April 2006.[28] About 20,000 people use New Zealand Sign Language.[34]
According to the 2013 census, 174 languages are used in New Zealand (including sign languages). As recorded in the 2013 census,Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed byHindi (1.7%), "Northern Chinese" (includingMandarin, 1.3%) andFrench (1.2%).[30]
New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. New Zealand's location in theSouthern Hemisphere was symbolised by theSouthern Cross constellation in both theUnited Tribes' Flag (the first national flag, adopted in 1834) and the currentnational flag of New Zealand (since 1902).[35] Thesilver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms,[35] and varioussilver fern flags have been proposed as an alternative national flag.[36]
Royal symbols of themonarchy of New Zealand continue to be featured in, for example, thecoat of arms, theDefence Force, and the prefixHis Majesty's New Zealand Ship.
The flightlesskiwi has been used as a symbol of New Zealand since the early 1900s. For example, in 1905The Westminster Gazette printed a cartoon of a kiwi and akangaroo (representing Australia) going off to a colonial conference.[37] Today "Kiwi" is a nickname for New Zealanders.[38]
New Zealand has twonational anthems of equal status,[39] "God Save the King" and "God Defend New Zealand" – the latter of which is often sung with alternating Māori and English verses.[40]
The definition of the arts by the New Zealand government covers six areas, visual arts, craft and object art, performing arts, literature, Pacific arts and Ngā toi Māori (Māori arts).[41] Government funding is provided principally through,Creative New Zealand.Heritage New Zealand and theMinistry for Culture and Heritage are national bodies that assist with heritage preservation. Most towns and cities have museums and often art galleries, and the national museum and art gallery isTe Papa ('Our Place'), inWellington.[42]
Film, television and broadcasting has other government initiatives.
Kapa haka, (kapa means 'rank' or 'row') is an expression of Māori cultural identity in song and dance. There is a national biennial kapa haka competitionTe Matatini with regional and schools competitions too.[43][44] Kapa haka is used in many state occasions and to represent New Zealand.[45]Haka is part of kapa haka and is often mistaken as being always a warrior challenge. It is well-known as being performed by the New Zealand rugby team theAll Blacks before matches.[46]
When settlers arrived, they brought with them Western artistic traditions. Early European art focused mainly on landscape painting, although some of the best known European artists of the 19th century (Charles Goldie andGottfried Lindauer) specialised in Māori portraiture.[47][48] Some Māori adopted Western styles and a number of 19th-century meeting houses feature walls painted with portraits and plant designs. From the early-20th-centuryĀpirana Ngata and others began a programme of reviving traditional Māori arts, and many new meeting houses were built with traditional carving andtukutuku woven wall panels were built.[49]
A longstanding concern of Pākehā artists has been the creation of a distinctly New Zealand artistic style.Rita Angus and others used the landscape to try to achieve this while painters such asGordon Walters used Māori motifs.[citation needed] A number of Māori artists, includingParatene Matchitt andShane Cotton have combined Westernmodernism with traditional Māori art.[50][failed verification]
A 2021portraiture award and touring exhibition theKiingi Tuheitia Portraiture Award has the intention of showcasing emerging Māori artists and recording sharing stories of ancestors.[51]
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Māori initially built semi-permanent wooden structures, and then from the 15th century onwards as Māori settled they built more permanent structures, including 'pātaka (storehouses), and kāuta (cooking houses)'. Thewharenui that are seen today were developed in the mid-19th century.[52] The contemporary architecture of New Zealand is influenced by various cultures but it is predominantly of a European style.[53]
Fatal earthquakes have influenced the built landscape of New Zealand, including less brick buildings and more wooden building in Wellington after a severe earthquake in 1855 early on in the British settlement.[54][55] The2010–11 Christchurch earthquakes have changed building approaches across New Zealand towards steel frame buildings especially in Christchurch and Wellington.[56]Napier sufferedan earthquake in 1931 creating anart deco re-build.[57]
Nowhere else in the world will you find as immense a collection of Art Deco architecture in such a small space. (Sally Jackson, 2016)[57]
New Zealand is grappling with the effect of international streaming platforms in the New Zealand market. In 2023 the New Zealand's screen producers' guild, SPADA pointed out international streamers currently 'pay no tax in New Zealand, face no regulation, and use broadband infrastructure partially funded by our Government while at the same time impact local broadcasting viewership and advertising revenue'. Regulating this would be in-line with many other countries.[58]
The number ofNew Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. The highest-grossing New Zealand films areHunt for the Wilderpeople,Boy,The World's Fastest Indian,Whale Rider,Once Were Warriors andThe Piano.[59] The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,[60] have encouraged someproducers to shoot big-budget productions in New Zealand, includingThe Lord of the Rings andThe Hobbit film trilogies,Avatar,The Chronicles of Narnia,King Kong,Wolverine andThe Last Samurai.[61]
There are a number of producing theatre companies in cities and towns and many regular arts festivals across New Zealand in the cities including theNew Zealand Festival andAuckland Arts Festival, and smaller places likeHawkes Bay andNelson.Roger Hall andJacob Rajan are two playwrights to achieve considerable popular success writing New Zealand stories.[62]
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New Zealand music has been influenced byblues,jazz,country,rock and roll andhip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[63][64] Hip-hop is popular and there are small but thriving live music,dance party and indie music scenes. Reggae is also popular within some communities, with bands such asHerbs,Katchafire,1814,House Of Shem,Unity Pacific all reflecting their roots, perspectives and cultural pride and heritage through their music.
A number of popular artists have gone on to achieve international success includingLorde,[65]Split Enz,Crowded House,OMC,Bic Runga,Kimbra,Ladyhawke,The Naked and Famous,Fat Freddy's Drop,Savage,Alien Weaponry,Flight of the Conchords, andBrooke Fraser.
New Zealand has a national orchestra[66] and many regional orchestras.[67]A number of New Zealand composers have developed international reputations. The most well-known includeDouglas Lilburn,[68]John Psathas,[69]Jack Body,[70]Gillian Whitehead,[71]Jenny McLeod,[72]Gareth Farr,[73]Ross Harris,[74] andMartin Lodge.[75]
In recent decades New Zealand comics have risen in popularity and recognition. In the 1970s and 1980sBilly T James satirized race relations,[76] andMcPhail &Gadsby lampooned political figures, especiallyRobert Muldoon.John Clarke akaFred Dagg joked about rural life.[77] From the 1990s onwards theNaked Samoans expressed humour relating to their experiences as Pasifika in New Zealand, who started out doing theatre and have created been part of films includingSione's Wedding.[78]Raybon Kan is a prominent Asian comic and columnist. TheTopp Twins are an off-beat comic/country music duo,[79] andFlight of the Conchords have gained acult following throughout the English-speaking world for their self-effacing show.[80]
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Pre-European Māori culture had a strong oral tradition of myths, legends, poetry, songs (waiata), and prayers.[81] Early Pākehā writers wrote for a British audience, and described their experiences travelling and exploring New Zealand.[82] A distinct New Zealand English literary culture only emerged in the early 20th century, initially with works inspired by Māori traditions and legends.[83] Some New Zealand writers began to build a reputation, most notably short-story writerKatherine Mansfield.[84]
From the 1940s, New Zealand literature began to develop into its own unique style, with writers such as short-story writerFrank Sargeson, novelistJanet Frame and poetAllen Curnow achieving critical and popular success in the mid-20th century.[81][85] Publishing outlets for New Zealand writers such asLandfall, theNew Zealand School Journal and bilingual quarterlyTe Ao Hou / The New World also developed in this period.[85] Since the mid-1950s Māori writing in New Zealand has flourished, with internationally recognised writers including poetHone Tuwhare, novelistsAlan Duff,Keri Hulme (author ofthe bone people (1984), the first New Zealand novel to win aBooker Prize),Patricia Grace andWiti Ihimaera, and short story writerJacquie Sturm.[86] New Zealand literature also has a close connection withPasifika literature, and notable Pasifika writers includeAlbert Wendt,Alistair Te Ariki Campbell andKarlo Mila.[87][88]
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New Zealand fiction has grown exponentially since the mid-1970s, with notable contemporary novelists includingElizabeth Knox,Lloyd Jones andEleanor Catton.[89] Children's authorsMargaret Mahy andJoy Cowley have made a significant contribution to New Zealand children's literature, and for older readers authors likeMaurice Gee,Jack Lasenby andTessa Duder have written books ranging from fantasy to social realism.[90]
New Zealand has a strong poetic tradition; poets likeJames K. Baxter,Fleur Adcock andC.K. Stead emerged in the 1950s with a focus on New Zealand national identity,[81] and were followed in later decades by poets influenced by American culture and more interested in personal relationships such asBill Manhire,Sam Hunt andElizabeth Smither.[91] Modern New Zealand poetry is diverse in scope and themes, and notable contemporary poets includeTusiata Avia,Selina Tusitala Marsh andHinemoana Baker.[92]
The sports that most New Zealanders participate in arerugby union,cricket,basketball,netball,association football (the most popular sport amongst children),rugby league and hockey.[93] Also popular are golf, tennis,cycling and a variety of water sports, particularly sailing and rowing. The country is known for itsextreme sports,adventure tourism and strongmountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New ZealanderSir Edmund Hillary.[94]
The national rugby union team is called theAll Blacks and has the best winning record of any national team in the world,[95] including being the inaugural winners of theWorld Cup in 1987. The style of name has been followed in naming the national team in several other sports. For instance, the nation's basketball team is known as theTall Blacks.
Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the "rugby, racing and beer" culture during the 1960s. Many New Zealanders either play or support their local rugby team and the All Blacks are national icons.[96] Some have argued that rugby is a national religion.[97]
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Pre-colonialnative Māori religion wasanimistic.[98] One of its major features wastapu (sacred and/or forbidden), which was used to maintain the status of chiefs andtohunga (priests) and also for purposes such as conserving resources. Some of the earliest European settlers in New Zealand wereChristianmissionaries, mostly from theChurch of England but also fromProtestant denominations and theCatholic Church. From the 1830s onwards, large numbers of Māori converted.[98] Throughout the 19th century a number of movements emerged which blended traditional Māori beliefs with Christianity. These includedPai Mārire,Ringatū, and in the early-20th century,Rātana. They typically centred on a prophet-leader. These churches continue to attract a substantial following; according to the 2013 census, 50,565 people are Rātana believers, and another 16,419 are Ringatū. 1,689 people stated that they followed Māori religion.[99]
Pākehā have become steadily less religious over the course of the 20th century. In the 1920s there was still a reasonably high level ofsectarianism and anti-Catholic prejudice, but this has since died down and the major churches generally co-operate with each other. The churches and religious lobby groups have little political influence where Pākehā are concerned. The vast majority of religious Pākehā are Christian, but a small number follow non-Christian religions, particularlyBuddhism.[citation needed] The Scottish (Presbyterian) English (Anglican) division can still be seen in the religious distribution of some cities and suburbs. It has also been evidenced that New Zealand's lack of religion correlates with income and income correlates with urban location; in Auckland, for example, the richest suburbs are the least religious.[100] A wider range of immigrant groups in recent decades has contributed to the growth of minority religions.[101]
According to the2013 census, the number of people who affiliated with a Christian denomination (including Māori Christian) decreased to 1,906,398 (48.9% of all people who stated their religious affiliation), down from 2,082,942 (55.6%) in 2006.[99] Affiliation to non-Christian religions has increased since the 2006 census. In 2013[update], the number ofHindus numbered 88,919, Buddhists 58,404,Muslims 46,149, andSikhs 19,191. The number and proportion of people indicating they had no religion increased between 2006 and 2013.[99] In 2013, 1,635,345 New Zealanders (41.9%) reported they had no religion.[99]
Until about 1980s it was often claimed that New Zealand was aclassless society.[102]
New Zealanders'egalitarianism has been criticised as discouraging and denigrating ambition and individual achievement and success. New Zealanders tend to value modesty and distrust those who talk about their own merits. They especially dislike anyone who seems to consider themselves better than others even if the person in question is demonstrably more talented or successful than others. This attitude can manifest itself in thetall poppy syndrome orcrab mentality, which refer to 'cutting down' of those thought to have risen above the general mass of people.[103][104]
It has been argued that in New Zealandethnicity plays the traditional role of class, with Māori and other Polynesians earning less, having a lower standard of living and less education, and working in lower status jobs than Pākehā.[105]
New Zealand's claims to be a classless society were dealt a fatal blow in the 1980s and 1990s by the economic reforms of thefourth Labour government and its successor, thefourth National government. A cultural shift also took place due to the economic and social impact of international capital, commerce and advertising. New Zealanders were exposed to a previously unknown array of consumer goods and franchises. Aided by overseas programming, commercial radio and TV stations enjoyed rapid growth. Local manufacturing suffered from cheap imports, with many jobs lost. These reforms led to a dramatic increase inincome inequality between the richest and poorest New Zealanders, and an increase in the numbers living in poverty.[106] Recent appreciation of real estate values increased the wealth of a generation of landowners while making housing unaffordable for many. Some are concerned that aNew Zealand property bubble may burst, potentially wiping out considerable wealth.
It is very common for New Zealanders to travel or live overseas for extended periods of time, often onworking holidays. These are usually referred to as the 'OE' or 'overseas experience', and are most commonly taken by people in their 20s.[107][108]
The OE to Europe is usually self-funded, and tends to occur a few years after university graduation, when the traveller has saved up enough for airfares and living expenses. The length of the visit can range from a few months to the remainder of the visitor's life; since many New Zealanders have British ancestry or dual citizenship (sometimes as a result of their parents' OE), the restrictions on working in Britain do not apply to a substantial percentage of them.[108]
Since the signing of theTrans-Tasman Travel Arrangement in 1973, New Zealanders have had the right to live and work in Australia on equal terms with Australian citizens.
New Zealand has a number of reciprocal working holiday agreements, allowing people in their 20s to live and work overseas, usually for up to a year. Such agreements are in place with:Argentina,Belgium,Brazil,Canada,Chile,Czech Republic,Denmark,Finland,France,Germany,Hong Kong,Ireland,Italy,Japan,South Korea,Malaysia,Malta,Mexico,Netherlands,Norway,Singapore,Spain,Sweden,Taiwan,Thailand, theUnited Kingdom andUruguay.[109]
The stereotyped New Zealand male is essentially a pioneer type: he is perceived to be rural, strong, unemotional, democratic, has little time for high culture, good with animals (particularly horses) and machines, and is able to turn his hand to nearly anything. This type of man is often presumed to be a unique product of New Zealand's colonial period but he shares many similarities with the stereotypical Americanfrontiersman and Australianbushman. New Zealand men are supposed to still have many of these qualities, even though most New Zealanders have lived in urban areas since the late-19th century. This has not prevented New Zealanders seeing themselves (and being seen) as essentially country people and good at the tasks which country life requires.[110]
New Zealand social policy has tended to oscillate between social progressiveness and conservatism. Social reforms pioneered by New Zealand includewomen's suffrage, thewelfare state, and respect for indigenous peoples (through theTreaty of Waitangi and theWaitangi Tribunal). Having led the (non-communist) world in economic regulation from the 1930s, in the 1980s and 1990s the reforms of theLabour Government led the world in economic de-regulation. New Zealand was the first country to have an openly transgender mayor, and later member of parliament,Georgina Beyer.Same-sex marriage has been legal in New Zealand since 19 August 2013.[115]
In contrast to this, New Zealand has a history of some very conservative social policies. Most notably, from World War One until 1967 pubs were required by law to close at 6pm.[116]
In a rare occurrence, the1981 Springbok Tour saw the two extremes very publicly clash with each other on a nationwide scale.[117]
In general, New Zealanders have faith in their democracy. New Zealand isperceived to have very low levels of corruption[118] although some question whether those perceptions are entirely warranted.[119]Turnout for parliamentary general elections is typically above 80%, which is very high by international standards and occurs despite the absence of any law requiring citizens to vote. However local government elections have much lower turnout figures, with an average of 53% in 2007.[120]
New Zealanders, both those of Pākehā and Māori roots, have been described as an individualistic people, who take intrusion very personally, especially when it occurs onto private land (but also sometimes in a wider sense). According to psychologists, this is rooted respectively in the 'frontier' image of the European settler culture, but also mirrored amongst the Māori, for whom land holds a lot of spiritual value in addition to its commercial use.[121]
New Zealand has for most of its modern history been an isolatedbicultural society. In recent decades an increasing number of immigrants has changed the demographic spectra. In the larger cities this change has occurred suddenly and dramatically. There has been an increasing awareness ofmulticulturalism in New Zealand in all areas of society and also in politics. New Zealand'srace relations has been a controversial topic in recent times. The political partyNew Zealand First has been associated with ananti-immigration policy. TheOffice of the Race Relations Conciliator was established by the Race Relations Act in 1971[122] for the purposes of "promoting positive race relations and addressing complaints of discrimination on grounds of race, colour, and ethnic or national origin", and was merged with the Human Rights Commission in January 2002.[123]
Māori cuisine was historically derived from that of tropicalPolynesia, adapted for New Zealand's colder climate. Key ingredients includedkūmara (sweet potato), fern root,taro, birds and fish. Food was cooked inhāngī (earth ovens) and roasted, and ingeothermal areas was boiled or steamed using natural hot springs and pools. Various means of preserving birds and other foods were also employed. Before the arrival of European settlers, Māori did not drinkalcoholic beverages.[124]
Following the arrival of British settlers, the Māori adopted many of their foods, especially pork and potatoes, the latter of which transformed the Māori agricultural economy. Many traditional food sources became scarce as introduced predators dramatically reduced bird populations, and forests were cleared for farming and timber. Traditional seafoods such astoheroa andwhitebait were over-harvested. Present day Māori cuisine is a mixture of Māori tradition, 19th century British cookery, and contemporary dishes. In everyday life the two foods of Māori origin are "the boil up" (meat and vegetables boiled in a broth and sometimes thickened with flour), and the hāngī which is associated with special occasions.[125]
Since the majority of Pākehā are of British descent, Pākehā cuisine is heavily influenced byBritish cuisine.
In recent decades international cuisine, includingChinese andIndian, has become popular, and as in many other countries 'foodie' culture has emerged. New Zealand chefs such asPeter Gordon played a major part in the creation offusion cuisine.[citation needed]
Café culture has grown to be a major element of New Zealand cuisine. Cafés and a high standard ofespressocoffee making have become common throughout the country.[126]
John McCaffery, a language expert at the University of Auckland school of education, says the language is thriving, with other indigenous peoples travelling to New Zealand to learn how Māori has made such a striking comeback. 'It has been really dramatic, the past three years in particular, Māori has gone mainstream,' he said.
New Zealanders have been called 'Kiwis' since the nickname was bestowed by Australian soldiers in the First World War.
The Māori comedian Billy T. James cleverly drew on old racist stereotypes about Māori, such as the Māori who was confused by the English language. By laughing at the stereotypes James helped to defuse them.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)Traditionally Māori did not drink alcohol, which was introduced by European settlers.
