Theculture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning inMinoan and later inMycenaean Greece, continuing most notably intoClassical Greece, while influencing theRoman Empire and its successor theByzantine Empire. Other cultures and states such as theFrankish states, theOttoman Empire, theVenetian Republic andBavarian andDanish monarchies have also left their influence on modern Greek culture. Also they believed in greek mythology
Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. Theancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history,[1] philosophy, and physics. They introduced important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influencedWestern art.[2]
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The first greatancient Greek civilization were the Minoans, aBronze AgeAegean civilization onCrete and otherAegean Islands, that flourished from c. 3000 BC to c. 1450 BC and, after a late period of decline, finally ended around 1100 BC during the earlyGreek Dark Ages. At the height of their power, they built architecture ranging from city houses andMinoan palaces. Exemplary of this construction was the palace atKnossos, which was composed of two to three levels, had over 500 rooms, and many terraces withporticos and stairs. The interior of this palace included monumental reception halls, vast apartments for the queen and bridesmaids, bathtubs with complete sewage and drainage systems, food deposits, shops, theatres, sport arenas, and other amenities. The walls were built of high-quality masonry that was covered with highly decoratedfrescos.
Later, theMycenaean civilization erected palatial structures atMycenae,Tiryns andPylos.
After theGreek Dark Ages, architecture developed into a style that, together withRoman, inspiredClassical architecture and laterNeoclassical. Examples of this style were theirtemples, such as theParthenon andErectheion which are both based in theAcropolis of Athens, and theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.Classical Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with stairs at each edges (known ascrepidoma), acella (ornaos) with a cult statue in it,columns, anentablature, and twopediments, one on the front side and another in the back. By the 4th century BC, Greek architects and stonemasons had developed a system of rules for all buildings known as theorders: theDoric, theIonic, and theCorinthian. They are most easily recognised by their columns (especially by thecapitals). The Doric column is stout and basic, the Ionic one is slimmer and has fourscrolls (calledvolutes) at the corners of the capital, and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one, but the capital is completely different, being decorated withacanthus leafs and four scrolls.[3]
Following the relocation of the capital of the Roman Empire toConstantinople in 330 AD, and the fall of theWestern Roman Empire some 150 years later, the architects of the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges,aqueducts, and churches. One of the more famous type of church constructed by the Byzantines was thebasilica, which was very widespread and received the most development of the churches that were built in the empire. Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style of architecture was used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles inEastern Orthodox countries.[4] For example, in Romania, theBrâncovenesc style is highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics.
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As with theParthenon, which was built in dedication to theAncient Greek religion, theHagia Sophia was considered an iconic church ofChristianity. The temples of both religions differ substantially in terms of their exterior and interior aspect. In Antiquity, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, because in the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept, only the priest had access. The ceremonies here held outside, and what the worshipers view was the facade of the temple, consisting of columns, with anentablature and two pediments. Meanwhile, Christian liturgies were held in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.[5]
Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns,coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use ofmosaics with golden backgrounds.[6] The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was highly appreciated and utilised by the Ancient Greeks, instead opting for mostly stone and brick while using thinalabaster sheets for windows.[7]
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After theindependence of Greece and during the nineteenth century,Neoclassical architecture was heavily used for both public and private buildings.[8] The 19th-century architecture ofAthens and other cities of theKingdom of Greece is mostly influenced by architects likeTheophil Hansen,Ernst Ziller,Panagis Kalkos,Lysandros Kaftanzoglou,Anastasios Metaxas andStamatios Kleanthis. Meanwhile, churches in Greece, on the other hand, experienced aNeo-Byzantine revival.
In 1933, theAthens Charter, a manifesto of the modernist movement, was signed and published byLe Corbusier. The primary architects of this movement were: Ioannis Despotopoulos,Dimitris Pikionis,Patroklos Karantinos and Takis Zenetos. FollowingWorld War II, and theGreek Civil War, the massive construction ofapartment buildings in major Greek city centres, was a major contributory factor for the Greek economy and the post-war recovery. The firstskyscrapers were also constructed during the 1960s and 1970s, such as theOTE Tower and theAthens Tower Complex.
Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914, theAsty Films Company was founded, which started the production of long films in Greece.Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is the first Greek long movie, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931,Orestis Laskos directedDaphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), contained the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944,Katina Paxinou was honoured with theBest Supporting ActressAcademy Award forFor Whom the Bell Tolls.
The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many as the Golden age of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim:Michael Cacoyannis,Alekos Sakellarios,Melina Mercouri,Nikos Tsiforos,Iakovos Kambanelis,Katina Paxinou,Nikos Koundouros,Ellie Lambeti,Irene Papas, etc. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority havingfilm noir elements. Notable films wereThe Counterfeit Coin (Η κάλπικη λίρα, 1955, directed byGiorgos Tzavellas),Bitter Bread (Πικρό Ψωμί, 1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou),The Ogre of Athens (O Drakos, 1956, directed byNikos Koundouros),Stella (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis). Cacoyannis also directedZorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations.Finos Film also contributed to this period with movies such asΛατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο,The Auntie from Chicago (Η Θεία από το Σικάγο),Maiden's Cheek (Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο), and many more. During the 1970s and 1980sTheo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His filmEternity and a Day won thePalme d'Or and thePrize of the Ecumenical Jury at the1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There were also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora such as theGreek-AmericanElia Kazan.
Greece has a diverse and highly influential musical tradition, withancient music influencing theRoman Empire, and Byzantine liturgical chants and secular music influencingmiddle eastern music and theRenaissance. Modern Greek music combines these elements, to carry Greeks' interpretation of a wide range of musical forms.
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The history of music in Greece begins with the music of ancient Greece, largely structured on theLyre and other supportingstring instruments of the era. Beyond the well-known structural legacies of thePythagorean scale, and the related mathematical developments it upheld to define western classical music, relatively little is understood about the precise character of music during this period; we do know, however, that it left, as so often, a strong mark on the culture ofRome. What has been gleaned about the social role and character of ancient Greek music comes largely from pottery and other forms ofGreek art.
Ancient Greeks believed that dancing was invented by thegods and therefore associated it with religious ceremony. They believed that the gods offered this gift to select mortals only, who in turn taught dancing to their fellow-men.
Periodic evidence in ancient texts indicates that dance was held in high regard, in particular for its educational qualities. Dance, along with writing, music, and physical exercise, was fundamental to the commenced in a circle and ended with the dancers facing one another. When not dancing in a circle the dancers held their hands high or waved them to the left and right. They held cymbals (very like the zilia of today) or a kerchief in their hands, and their movements were emphasized by their long sleeves. As they danced, they sang, either set songs or extemporized ones, sometimes in unison, sometimes in refrain, repeating the verse sung by the lead dancer. The onlookers joined in, clapping the rhythm or singing. Professional singers, often themusicians themselves, composed lyrics to suit the occasion.
TheByzantine music is also of major significance to the history and development of European music, asliturgical chants became the foundation and stepping stone for music of the Renaissance (see:Renaissance Music). It is also certain that Byzantine music included an extensive tradition of instrumental court music and dance; any other picture would be both incongruous with the historically and archaeologically documented opulence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There survive a few but explicit accounts of secular music. A characteristic example is the accounts of pneumatic organs, whose construction was further advanced in the eastern empire prior to their development in the west following the Renaissance.
Byzantine instruments included the guitar, single, double or multiple flute, sistrum, timpani (drum), psaltirio, Sirigs, lyre, cymbals, keras and kanonaki.
Popular dances of this period included theSyrtos,Geranos,Mantilia,Saximos,Pyrichios, andKordakas . Some of these dances have their origins in the ancient period and are still enacted in some form today.
A range of domestically and internationally known composers and performers across the musical spectrum have found success in modern Greece, while traditionalGreek music is noted as a mixture of influences from indigenous culture with those of west and east. A fewOttoman as well as medieval Italian elements can be heard in the traditional songs,dhimotiká, as well as in the modernbluesyrembétika music. A well-known Greek musical instrument is thebouzouki. "Bouzouki" is a descriptive Turkish name, but the instrument itself is probably of Greek origin (from the ancient Greek lute known aspandoura, a kind of guitar, clearly visible in ancient statues, especially female figurines of the "Tanagraies" playing cord instruments).
Famous Greek musicians and composers of modern era include the central figure of 20th-century European modernismIannis Xenakis, a composer, architect and theorist.Maria Callas,Nikos Skalkottas,Mikis Theodorakis,Dimitris Mitropoulos,Manos Hadjidakis andVangelis also lead twentieth-century Greek contributions, alongsideDemis Roussos,Nana Mouskouri,Yanni,Georges Moustaki,Eleni Karaindrou and others.
The birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek:Επτανησιακή Σχολή) came through theIonian Islands (notable composers includeSpyridon Samaras,Nikolaos Mantzaros andPavlos Carrer), whileManolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of theGreek National School.
Greece is one of the few places in Europe where the day-to-day role of folk dance is sustained. Rather than functioning as a museum piece preserved only for performances and special events, it is a vivid expression of everyday life. Occasions for dance are usually weddings, family celebrations, and paneyeria (Patron Saints' name days). Dance has its place in ceremonial customs that are still preserved in Greek villages, such as dancing the bride during a wedding and dancing thetrousseau of the bride during the wedding preparations. Thecarnival and Easter offer more opportunities for family gatherings and dancing. Greektaverns providing live entertainment often include folk dances in their program.
Regional characteristics have developed over the years because of variances inclimatic conditions,land morphology and people's social lives.Kalamatianos andSyrtos are considered Pan-Hellenic dances and are danced all over the world in diaspora communities. Others have also crossed boundaries and are known beyond the regions where they originated; these include thePentozali fromCrete,Hasapiko from Constantinople,Zonaradikos fromThrace,Serra fromPontos andBalos from theAegean islands.
The avant-garde choreographer, director and dancerDimitris Papaioannou was responsible for the critically successfulopening ceremony of the2004 Olympic Games, with a conception that reflected the classical influences on modern and experimental Greek dance forms.
There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors likePliny orPausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described aspanel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to theMinoan andMycenaeanBronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites likeKnossos,Tiryns andMycenae.
Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described aspolychrome (fromGreekπολυχρωμία,πολύ = many andχρώμα = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases.
Byzantine art is the term created for theEastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century AD until the fall ofConstantinople in 1453. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract," or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly onicons andhagiographies.
The termCretan School describes an important school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished whileCrete was underVenetian rule during the lateMiddle Ages, reaching its climax after theFall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements. The most famous product of the school,El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe.
TheHeptanese School of painting succeeded the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to theOttomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasingWestern European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in theIonian islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century.
Modern Greek painting, after theindependence and the creation of the modern Greek state, began to be developed around the time ofRomanticism and the Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art. Notable painters of the era includeNikolaos Gyzis,Georgios Jakobides,Nikiphoros Lytras,Konstantinos Volanakis andTheodoros Vryzakis.
Ancient Greekmonumental sculpture was composed almost entirely ofmarble orbronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable.Chryselephantine sculptures, used for templecult images and luxury works, usedgold, most often inleaf form andivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived.By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high-intensity lamps,ultraviolet light, specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that the entireParthenon, including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted.
The Byzantines inherited theearly Christian distrust ofmonumental sculpture in religious art, and produced onlyreliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived fromCarolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief.
The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentationConsular diptychs or caskets such as theVeroli casket,hardstone carvings, enamels, jewelry, metalwork, andfigured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver.
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After the establishment of theGreek Kingdom and the western influence ofNeoclassicism, sculpture was re-discovered by the Greek artists. Main themes included ancient Greek antiquity, theWar of Independence and important figures of Greek history.
Notable sculptors of the new state wereLeonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at theAcademy of Athens,Lazaros Sochos,Georgios Vitalis,Dimitrios Filippotis,Ioannis Kossos,Yannoulis Chalepas,Georgios Bonanos andLazaros Fytalis.
Theatre was born inGreece. Thecity-state ofClassical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it wasinstitutionalised as part of afestival called theDionysia, which honoured the godDionysus.Tragedy (late 6th century BC),comedy (486 BC), and thesatyr play were the threedramaticgenres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a commoncultural identity.
The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia), from which the word "tragedy" is derived, is acompound of twoGreek words: τράγος (tragos) or "goat" and ᾠδή (ode) meaning "song", from ἀείδειν (aeidein), "to sing".[9]This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancientDionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how thesefertility rituals became the basis for tragedy andcomedy.[10]
During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (Mimos andPantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state.[11] Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was theKaragiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in theVenetian Crete. Significant dramatists includeVitsentzos Kornaros andGeorgios Chortatzis.
The modern Greek theatre was born after theGreek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. TheNobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre andopera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera,Spyridon Xyndas'The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greeklibretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated byrevues,musical comedies,operettas andnocturnes and notable playwrights includedSpyridon Samaras,Dionysios Lavrangas,Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.
TheNational Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre includeAlexandros Rizos Rangavis,Gregorios Xenopoulos,Nikos Kazantzakis,Angelos Terzakis,Pantelis Horn,Alekos Sakellarios andIakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors includeCybele Andrianou,Marika Kotopouli,Aimilios Veakis,Orestis Makris,Katina Paxinou,Manos Katrakis andDimitris Horn. Significant directors includeDimitris Rontiris,Alexis Minotis andKarolos Koun.
Greek cuisine has a long tradition and its flavors change with the season and its geography.[12] Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence – via ancient Rome – throughout Europe and beyond.[13]
Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the "Mediterranean triad":wheat,olive oil, andwine, with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common.[14] It wasArchestratos in 320 B.C. who wrote the first cookbook in history. Greece has a culinary tradition of some 4,000 years.[15]
TheByzantine cuisine was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, basil, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the ancient Greek doctorClaudius Aelius Galenus.[16]
The modern Greek cuisine has also influences from theOttoman andItalian cuisine due to the Ottoman and Venetian dominance through the centuries.
Greece is one of the oldestwine-producing regions in the world. The earliest evidence ofGreek wine has been dated to 6,500 years ago[17][18] where wine was produced on a household or communal basis. In ancient times, as trade in wine became extensive, it was transported from end to end of the Mediterranean; Greek wine had especially high prestige in Italy under the Roman Empire. In the medieval period, wines exported fromCrete,Monemvasia and other Greek ports fetched high prices in northern Europe.
Education in Greece is compulsory for all children 6–15 years old; namely, it includes Primary (Dimotiko) and Lower Secondary (Gymnasio) Education. The school life of the students, however, can start from the age of 2.5 years (pre-school education) in institutions (private and public) called "Vrefonipiakoi Paidikoi Stathmi" (creches). In some Vrefonipiakoi Stathmoi there are also Nipiaka Tmimata (nursery classes) which operate along with the Nipiagogeia (kindergartens).
Post-compulsorySecondary Education, according to the reforms of 1997 and 2006, consists of two main school types: Genika Lykeia (General Upper Secondary Schools) and the Epaggelmatika Lykeia (Vocational Upper Secondary Schools), as well as the Epaggelmatikes Sxoles (Vocational Schools). Musical, Ecclesiastical and Physical Education Gymnasia and Lykeia are also in operation.
Post-compulsory Secondary Education also includes theVocational Training Institutes (IEK), which provide formal but unclassified level of education. These Institutes are not classified as an educational level, because they accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates according to the relevant specializations they provide. Public higher education is divided into Universities and Technological Education Institutes (TEI). Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place at the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students are admitted to the Hellenic Open University upon the completion of the 22 year of age by drawing lots.
Nea Dimokratia (New Democracy), the Greek conservative right political party, has claimed that it will change the law so that private universities gain recognition. Without official recognition, students who have an EES degree are unable to work in the public sector.PASOK took some action afterEU intervention, namely the creation of a special government agency that certifies the vocational status of certain EES degree holders. However, their academic status still remains a problem. The issue of full recognition is still an issue of debate among Greek politicians.
TheInstitute of Entrepreneurship Development (iED) is a Greek Non-governmental organization formed for the promotion of innovation and for enhancing the spirit of entrepreneurship intending to link with other European initiatives.
The origins ofWestern literature and of the main branches ofWestern learning may be traced to the era of Greek greatness that began before 700 BC with the epics ofHomer, theIliad and theOdyssey.Hesiod, the first didactic poet, put into epic verse his descriptions of pastoral life, including practical advice on farming, and allegorical myths. The poetsAlcaeus of Mytilene,Sappho,Anacreon, andBacchylides wrote of love, war, and death in lyrics of great feeling and beauty.Pindar celebrated the Panhellenic athletic festivals in vivid odes. The fables of the slaveAesop have been famous for more than 2,500 years. Three of the world's greatest dramatists wereAeschylus, author of theOresteia trilogy;Sophocles, author of theTheban plays; andEuripides, author ofMedea,The Trojan Women, andThe Bacchae.Aristophanes, the greatest author of comedies, satirized the mores of his day in a series of brilliant plays. Three great historians wereHerodotus, regarded as the father of history, known forThe Persian Wars;Thucydides, who generally avoided myth and legend and applied greater standards of historical accuracy in his History of the Peloponnesian War; andXenophon, best known for his account of the Greek retreat from Persia, theAnabasis. Outstanding literary figures of the Hellenistic period wereMenander, the chief representative of a newer type of comedy; the poetsCallimachus,Theocritus, andApollonius Rhodius, author of theArgonautica; andPolybius, who wrote a detailed history of the Mediterranean world. Noteworthy in the Roman period wereStrabo, a writer on geography;Plutarch, the father of biography, whoseParallel Lives of famous Greeks and Romans is a chief source of information about great figures of antiquity;Pausanias, a travel writer; andLucian, a satirist.
The leading philosophers of the period preceding Greece's golden age wereThales,Pythagoras,Heraclitus,Protagoras, andDemocritus.Socrates investigated ethics and politics. His greatest pupil,Plato, used Socrates' question-and-answer method of investigating philosophical problems in his famous dialogues. Plato's pupilAristotle established the rules of deductive reasoning but also used observation and inductive reasoning, applying himself to the systematic study of almost every form of human endeavor. Outstanding in the Hellenistic period wereEpicurus, the philosopher of moderation;Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism; andDiogenes of Sinope, the famous Cynic. The oath ofHippocrates, the father of medicine, is still recited by newly graduating physicians.Euclid evolved the system of geometry that bears his name.Archimedes discovered the principles of mechanics and hydrostatics.Eratosthenes calculated the earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy, andHipparchus Founded scientific astronomy.Galen was an outstanding physician of ancient times.
The sculptorPhidias created the statue of Athena and the figure of Zeus in the temple at Olympia and supervised the construction and decoration of the Parthenon. Another renowned sculptor wasPraxiteles.
The legal reforms of Solon served as the basis of Athenian democracy. The Athenian generalMiltiades the Younger led the victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC, andThemistocles was chiefly responsible for the victory at Salamis 10 years later.Pericles, the virtual ruler of Athens for more than 25 years, added to the political power of that city, inaugurated the construction of the Parthenon and other noteworthy buildings, and encouraged the arts of sculpture and painting. With the decline of Athens, first Sparta and then Thebes, under the great military tacticianEpaminondas, gained the ascendancy; but soon thereafter, two military geniuses,Philip II of Macedon and his sonAlexander the Great, gained control over all of Greece and formed a vast empire stretching as far east as India. It was against Philip thatDemosthenes, the greatest Greek orator, directed his diatribes, thePhilippics.
The most renowned Greek painter during the Renaissance wasEl Greco, born inCrete, whose major works, painted in Spain, have influenced many 20th-century artists. An outstanding modern literary figure isNikos Kazantzakis, a novelist and poet who composed a vast sequel to Homer'sOdyssey. Leading modern poets areKostis Palamas, andConstantine P. Cavafy, as well asGeorge Seferis, andOdysseus Elytis, winners of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1963 and 1979, respectively. The work of social theoristCornelius Castoriadis is known for its multidisciplinary breadth. Musicians of stature are the composersNikos Skalkottas,Iannis Xenakis, andMikis Theodorakis; the conductorDimitri Mitropoulos; and the sopranoMaria Callas. Filmmakers who have won international acclaim are Greek-AmericansJohn Cassavetes andElia Kazan, and GreeksMichael Cacoyannis andCosta-Gavras. Actresses of note areKatina Paxinou;Melina Mercouri, who was appointed minister of culture and science in the Socialist cabinet in 1981; andIrene Papas.
Outstanding Greek public figures in the 20th century include Cretan-bornEleutherios Venizelos, prominent statesman of the interwar period;Ioannis Metaxas, dictator from 1936 until his death;Constantine Karamanlis, prime minister (1955–63, 1974–80) and president (1980–85) of Greece;George Papandreou, head of the Center Union Party and prime minister (1963–65); and his sonAndreas Papandreou, the PASOK leader who became prime minister in 1981.Costas Simitis was leader of PASOK and prime minister from 1996 to 2004. He was succeeded byKostas Karamanlis.
The Greek language is the official language of theHellenic Republic and theRepublic of Cyprus and has a total of 15 million speakers worldwide. It is anIndo-European language. It is particularly remarkable in the depth of its continuity, with written records spanning over 3400 years. The earliest preserved form isMycenaean Greek, written in theLinear B script during theLate Bronze Age.Modern Greek descends fromKoine Greek, which formed fromdialect leveling ofAncient Greek dialects such asAttic Greek andDoric Greek.
Greek has had an enormous impact on other languages both directly on theRomance languages, and indirectly through its influence on the emergingLatin language during the early days ofRome. Signs of this influence, and its many developments, can be seen throughout the family of Western European languages.
More recently, the rise of internet-based communication services as well as cell phones have caused a distinctive form of Greek written partially, and sometimes fully in Latin characters to emerge; this is known asGreeklish, a form that has spread across the Greek diaspora and even to the two countries with majority Greek population,Greece andCyprus.
Katharévousa (Καθαρεύουσα) is a form of the Greek Language midway between modern and ancient forms set in train during the early nineteenth century by Greek intellectual and revolutionary leaderAdamantios Korais, intended to return the Greek language closer to its ancient form. Its influence, in recent years, evolved toward a more formal role, and it came to be used primarily for official purposes such as diplomacy, politics, and other forms of official documentation. It has nevertheless had significant effects on the Greek language as it is still written and spoken today, and both vocabulary and grammatical and syntactical forms have re-enteredModern Greek via Katharevousa.
There are a variety of dialects of the Greek language; the most notable includeCappadocian,Cretan Greek (which is closely related to mostAegean Islands' dialects),Cypriot Greek,Pontic Greek, theGriko language spoken in Southern Italy, andTsakonian, still spoken in the modern prefecture ofArcadia and widely noted as a surviving regional dialect ofDoric Greek.
Greece has a remarkably rich and resilient literary tradition, extending over 2800 years and through several eras. The Classical era is that most commonly associated withGreek Literature, beginning in 800 BCE and maintaining its influence through to the beginnings ofByzantine period, whereafter the influence of Christianity began to spawn a new development of the Greek written word. The many elements of a millennia-old tradition are reflected in Modern Greek literature, including the works of the Nobel laureatesOdysseus Elytis andGeorge Seferis.
The first recorded works in the western literary tradition are theepic poems ofHomer andHesiod. Early Greeklyric poetry, as represented by poets such asSappho andPindar, was responsible for defining the lyricgenre as it is understood today in western literature.Aesop wrote hisFables in the 6th century BC. These innovations were to have a profound influence not only on Roman poets, most notablyVirgil in his epic poem on the founding of Rome,The Aeneid, but one that flourished throughout Europe.
Classical Greece is also judged the birthplace oftheatre.Aeschylus introduced the ideas ofdialogue and interacting characters to playwriting and in doing so, he effectively invented "drama": hisOresteia trilogy of plays is judged his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting wereSophocles andEuripides.Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defined and shaped the idea ofcomedy as a theatrical form.
Herodotus andThucydides are often attributed with developing the modern study ofhistory into a field worthy of philosophical, literary, and scientific pursuit.Polybius first introduced into study the concept ofmilitary history.
Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues ofPlato, while his pupilAristotle, in his work thePoetics, formulated the first set criteria forliterary criticism. Both these literary figures, in the context of the broader contributions of Greek philosophy in the Classical and Hellenistic eras, were to give rise to idea ofpolitical Science, the study of political evolution and the critique of governmental systems.
The growth of Christianity throughout theGreco-Roman world in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, together with the Hellenization of theByzantine Empire of the period, would lead to the formation of a unique literary form, combining Christian, Greek and Oriental influences. In its turn, this would promote developments such as Cretan poetry, the growth of poetic satire in theGreek East and the several pre-eminent historians of the period.
Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in theGreek language from the 11th century, with texts written in a language that is more familiar to the ears ofGreeks today than is the language of the early Byzantine times.
TheCretan Renaissance poemErotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this early period of modern Greek literature, and represents one of its supreme achievements. It is a verseromance written around 1600 byVitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613). The other major representative of theCretan literature wasGeorgios Chortatzis and his most notable work wasErofili. Other plays includeThe Sacrifice of Abraham byKornaros,Panoria andKatsourbos byChortatzis,King Rodolinos byAndreas Troilos,Stathis (comedy) andVoskopoula by unknown artists.
Much later,Diafotismos was an ideological, philological, linguistic and philosophical movement among 18th century Greeks that translate the ideas and values ofEuropean Enlightenment into the Greek world.Adamantios Korais andRigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures. In 1819,Korakistika, written byIakovakis Rizos Neroulos, was alampoon against the Greek intellectualAdamantios Korais and his linguistic views, who favoured the use of a more conservative form of the Greek language, closer to the ancient.
The years before theGreek Independence, theIonian islands became the center of theHeptanese School (literature). Its main characteristics was the Italian influence, romanticism, nationalism and use ofDemotic Greek. Notable representatives wereAndreas Laskaratos,Andreas Kalvos,Aristotelis Valaoritis andDionysios Solomos.
After the independence the intellectual center was transferred inAthens. A major figure of this new era wasKostis Palamas, considered "national poet" of Greece. He was the central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so-calledNew Athenian School (or Palamian School). Its main characteristic was the use ofDemotic Greek. He was also the writer of theOlympic Hymn.
Moving into the twentieth century, the modern Greek literary tradition spans the work ofConstantine P. Cavafy, considered a key figure of twentieth-century poetry,Giorgos Seferis (whose works and poems aimed to fuse the literature of Ancient and Modern Greece) andOdysseas Elytis, both of whom won theNobel Prize for Literature.Nikos Kazantzakis is also considered a dominant figure, with works such asThe Last Temptation of Christ andThe Greek Passion receiving international recognition.
TheGreek world is widely regarded as having given birth to scientific thought using observation, thought, and development of a theory without the intervention of a supernatural force.Thales,Anaximander andDemocritus were amongst those contributing significantly to the establishment of this tradition. It is also, and perhaps more commonly in the Western imagination, identified with the dawn ofWestern philosophy, as well as a mapping out of thenatural sciences. Greek developments of mathematics continued well up until the decline of theByzantine Empire. In the modern era Greeks continue to contribute to the fields ofscience,mathematics, andphilosophy.
The tradition ofphilosophy in ancient Greece accompanied its literary development. Greek learning had a profound influence onWestern andMiddle Eastern civilizations. The works ofSocrates,Plato,Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers profoundly influencedClassical thought, theIslamic Golden Age, and theRenaissance.
TheAncient Egyptians andMesopotamians were very good at maths and at building geometric tombs, but they're not famous for philosophy. Their religious explanations of things are elaborate but unconvincing in philosophical terms. Theocratic societies governed by priestly castes are usually static and monopolize thought. They insist on orthodox explanations and actively discourage independent and unconventional ideas. The Ancient Greeks invented philosophy, but no one knows why. Because of their trade across theMediterranean Sea, they borrowed myths and mysticism as well as architecture and mathematics from their neighboring civilizations. Some Greek thinkers decided to not accept religious explanations for how the world works, an example beingXenophanes. They just thought that there just had to be some king of underlying order or logic for the way things are. This will later be given toAncient Rome and Modern civilisation.[19]
Inmedicine, doctors still refer to theHippocratic oath, instituted byHippocrates, regarded as foremost in laying the foundations of medicine as a science.Galen built on Hippocrates' theory of thefour humours, and his writings became the foundation of medicine inEurope and theMiddle East for centuries. The physiciansHerophilos andPaulus Aegineta were pioneers in the study ofanatomy, whilePedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive treatise on the practice ofpharmacology.
The period ofClassical Greece (from 800 BC until the rise ofMacedon, a Greek state in the north) is that most often associated with Greek advances in science.Thales of Miletus is regarded by many as the father ofscience; he was the first of the ancient philosophers to seek to explain the physical world in terms of natural rather thansupernatural causes.Pythagoras was amathematician often described as the "father of numbers"; it is believed that he had the pioneering insight into the numerical ratios that determine themusical scale, and thePythagorean theorem is commonly attributed to him.Diophantus of Alexandria, in turn, was the "father ofalgebra". Many parts of moderngeometry are based on the work ofEuclid, whileEratosthenes was one of the first scientificgeographers, calculating thecircumference of theEarth and conceiving the firstmaps based on scientific principles.
The Hellenistic period, following Alexander's conquests, continued and built upon this knowledge.Hipparchus is considered the pre-eminent astronomical observer of the ancient world, and was probably the first to develop an accurate method for the prediction ofsolar eclipse, whileAristarchus of Samos was the first knownastronomer to propose aheliocentric model of theSolar System, though thegeocentric model ofPtolemy was more commonly accepted until the seventeenth century. Ptolemy also contributed substantially tocartography and to the science ofoptics. For his partArchimedes was the first to calculate the value ofπ and ageometric series, and also the earliest known mathematicalphysicist discovering the law ofbuoyancy, as well as conceiving theirrigation device known asArchimedes' screw.
The Byzantine period remained largely a period of preservation in terms of classical Greco-Roman texts; there were, however, significant advances made in the fields ofmedicine andhistorical scholarship. Theologicalphilosophy also remained an area of study, and there was, while not matching the achievements of preceding ages, a certain increase in the professionalism of study of these subjects, epitomized by the founding of the University of Constantinople.
Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, the architects of the famousHagia Sophia inConstantinople, also contributed towards mathematical theories concerning architectural form, and the perceived mathematical harmony needed to create a multi-domed structure. These ideas were to prove a heavy influence on the Ottoman architectMimar Sinan in his creation of theBlue Mosque, also in Constantinople. Tralles in particular produced several treatises on theNatural Sciences, as well as his other forays into mathematics such asConic Sections.
The gradual migration of Greeks from Byzantium to theItalian city states following the decline of the Byzantine Empire, and the texts they brought with them combined with the academic positions they held[specify], was a major factor in lighting the first sparks of theItalian Renaissance.[citation needed]
Greeks continue to contribute to science and technology in the modern world.John Argyris, a mathematician and engineer, was among the creators of thefinite element method and thedirect stiffness method.Constantin Carathéodory made significant contributions to thetheory of functions of a real variable,calculus of variations andmeasure theory, credited with the introduction of severalmathematical theorems. In physics,John Iliopoulos is known for the prediction of thecharm quark and the proposition of theGIM mechanism, as well as theFayet–Iliopoulos D-term formula, whileDimitri Nanopoulos is one of the principal developers of theFlipped SU(5) model.
BiologistFotis Kafatos pioneers in the field of molecularcloning andgenomics, and he was the founding president of theEuropean Research Council. In medicine,Georgios Papanikolaou contributed heavily to the development ofcervical screening inventing thePap test, which is among the most common methods of cervical screening worldwide.
Car designerAlec Issigonis designed the groundbreaking and iconicMini automobile, whileMichael Dertouzos was amongst the pioneers of theInternet, instrumental in defining theWorld Wide Web Consortium and director for 27 years of theMIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, which innovated in a variety of areas during his term.Nicholas Negroponte, is the founder of theMIT Media Lab and theOne Laptop per Child project aiming to extend Internet access in thedeveloping world.Joseph Sifakis, a computer scientist, has won aTuring Award for his pioneering work onmodel checking.
Greece is aParliamentaryRepublic with a president assuming a more ceremonial role than in some other republics, and the Prime Minister chosen from the leader of the majority party in the parliament. Greece has a codifiedconstitution and a written Bill of Rights embedded within it. The current Prime Minister isKyriakos Mitsotakis.
The politics of the thirdHellenic Republic have been dominated by two main political parties, the conservativeNew Democracy and the socialistPASOK. New Democracy's election to government in 2004 has led to various initiatives to modernize the country, such as the education university scheme above as well as labour market liberalization. Politically there has been massive opposition to some of these moves owing to a large, well organized workers' movement in Greece, which distrusts the right-wing administration and neo-liberal ideas. The population in general appears to accept many of the initiatives, reflected in governmental support; on the economic front many are so far warming to the reforms made by the administration, which have been largely rewarded with above average Eurozone growth rates. New Democracy were re-elected in September 2007.
A number of other smaller political parties exist, including the far-left Communist Party and the far-right Popular Orthodox Rally.
The political process is energetically and openly participated in by the people of Greece, while public demonstrations are a continual feature of Athenian life; however, there have been criticisms of a governmental failure to sufficiently involve minorities in political debate and hence a sidelining of their opinions. In general, politics is regarded as an acceptable subject to broach on almost every social occasion, and Greeks are often very vocal about their support (or lack of it) for certain policy proposals, or political parties themselves – this is perhaps reflected in what many consider the rather sensationalistmedia on both sides of the political spectrum; although this is a feature of most European tabloids.
According to Greek Law every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. In addition, there are four obligatory, official public holidays: March 25 (Greek Independence Day),Easter Monday, August 15 (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin) and December 25 (Christmas). Two more days, May 1 (Labour Day) and October 28 (Ohi Day), are regulated by law as optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed National Holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven National Holidays each year.
In addition to the National Holidays, there are Public Holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint", also called "Name Day", or a "Liberation Day", and at this day it is customary for schools to have a day off.
Notable festivals includePatras Carnival,Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city ofThessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. TheThessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals inSouthern Europe,[20]
Classical Athens may be suggested to have heralded some of the same religious ideas that would later be promoted byChristianity, such asAristotle's invocation of a perfect God, andHeraclitus'Logos.Plato considered there were rewards for the virtuous in the heavens and punishment for the wicked under the earth; the soul was valued more highly than the material body, and the material world was understood to be imperfect and not fully real (illustrated inSocrates'sallegory of the cave).
Alexander's conquests spread classical concepts about the divine, theafterlife, and much else across the eastern Mediterranean area.Jews andearly Christians alike adopted the name "hades" when writing about "sheol" in Greek.Greco-Buddhism was the culturalsyncretism betweenHellenistic culture andBuddhism, which developed in theIndo-Greek Kingdoms. By the advent ofChristianity, the four originalpatriarchates beyond Rome used Greek as their church language.
TheGreek Orthodox Church, largely because of the importance of Byzantium in Greek history, as well as its role in the revolution, is a major institution in modern Greece. Its roles in society and larger role in overarching Greek culture are very important; a number of Greeks attend Church at least once a month or more and the OrthodoxEaster holiday holds special significance.
TheChurch of Greece also retains limited political influence through the fact the Greek constitution does not have an explicit separation of Church and State; a debate suggested by more conservative elements of the church in the early 2000s about identification cards and whether religious affiliation might be added to them highlights the friction between state and church on some issues; the proposal unsurprisingly was not accepted. A widely publicised set of corruption scandals in 2004 implicating a small group of senior churchmen also increased national debate on introducing a greater transparency to the church-state relationship.
Greek Orthodox Churches dot both the villages and towns of Greece and come in a variety of architectural forms, from older Byzantine churches, to more modern white brick churches, to newer cathedral-like structures with evident Byzantine influence. Greece (as well as Cyprus), also polled as, ostensibly, one of the most religious countries inEurope, according toEurostat; however, while the church has wide respect as a moral and cultural institution, a contrast in religious belief with Protestant northern Europe is more obvious than one with Catholic Mediterranean Europe.
Greece also has a significant minority ofMuslims inWestern Thrace (numbering around 100–150,000), with their places of worship guaranteed since the 1923Treaty of Lausanne. The Greek state has fully approved the construction a main mosque for the more recent Muslim community ofAthens under thefreedom of religion provisions of the Greek constitution.
Other religious communities living in Greece includeRoman Catholics,Jehovah's Witnesses,Protestants,Armenians, followers of the ancient Greek religion (seeHellenism),Jews and others.
Greece has risen to prominence in a number ofsporting areas in recent decades.Football in particular has seen a rapid transformation, with theGreece national football team winning the2004 UEFA European Football Championship. Many Greek athletes have also achieved significant success and have won world and olympic titles in numerous sports during the years, such asbasketball,wrestling,water polo,athletics,weightlifting, with many of them becoming international stars inside their sports. The successful organisation of theAthens 2004 Olympic and Paralympic Games led also to the further development of many sports and has led to the creation of many World class sport venues all over Greece and especially inAthens andThessaloniki. Greek athletes have won a total 146 medals for Greece in 15 differentOlympic sports at theSummer Olympic Games, including theIntercalated Games, an achievement which makes Greece one of the top nations globally, in the world's rankings of medals per capita.
Thenational colours of Greece are blue and white. Thecoat of arms of Greece consists of a white cross on a blueescutcheon which is surrounded by twolaurel branches.[21] TheFlag of Greece is also blue and white, as defined by Law 851/1978Regarding the National Flag.[22] It specifies the colour of "cyan" (Greek: κυανό,kyano), meaning "blue", so the shade of blue is ambiguous.
TheOrder of the Redeemer and military decorationCross of Valour both have ribbons in the national colours.[23]
Since it was first established, the national emblem has undergone many changes in shape and in design. The original Greek national emblem depicted the goddessAthena and anowl. At the time ofIoannis Kapodistrias, thephoenix, the symbol of rebirth, was added.
Other recognizable symbols include the (throughout theByzantine Empire)double-headed eagle and theVergina Sun.
