.png)
Theculture of Europe is diverse, and rooted in itsart,architecture,traditions,cuisines,music,folklore,embroidery,film,literature,economics,philosophy andreligious customs.[1]
Whilst there are a great number of perspectives that can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing concept of European culture.[2] Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe.[3] One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:[4]
Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realizations".[6] The concept of European culture is arguably linked to the classical definition of theWestern world. In this definition, Western culture is the set ofliterary,scientific,political,artistic, andphilosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in theWestern canon.[7] The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such asthe Americas, andAustralasia, and is not restricted to Europe.
TheNobel Prize laureate in LiteratureThomas Stearns Eliot, in his 1948 bookNotes Towards the Definition of Culture, credited the prominentChristian influence upon the European culture:[8] "It is in Christianity that our arts have developed; it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted".[citation needed]
In the 5th century BCE, Greek philosopherHerodotus conceptualized what it was that divided Europe and Asia, differentiating Europe, as the West (where the sun sets), from the East (where the sun rises).[9][10][11] A later concept of Europe as a cultural sphere emerged during theCarolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and early 9th century, limited to the territories of Europe that practicedWestern Christianity at the time.[12]
Europe underwent social change and transition from the Middle Ages to modernisation, when the cultural movementRenaissance, from the 15th to 16th century, spread values and art techniques across the continent.[citation needed]
Surviving Europeanprehistoric art mainly comprises sculpture and rock art. It includes the oldest known representation of the human body, theVenus of Hohle Fel, dating from 40,000 to 35,000 BC, found inSchelklingen,Germany, and theLöwenmensch figurine, from about 30,000 BC, the oldest undisputed piece of figurative art. TheSwimming Reindeer of about 11,000 BCE is among the finestMagdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in theart of the Upper Paleolithic. At the beginning of theMesolithic in Europe, the figurative sculpture was greatly reduced, and remained a less common element in art than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite some works such as theGundestrup cauldron from theEuropean Iron Age and the Bronze AgeTrundholm sun chariot. The oldest European cave art dates back to 40,800[clarification needed] and can be found in theEl Castillo Cave in Spain, but cave art exists across the continent. Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those paintings have survived because of erosion. One well-known example is the rock paintings ofAstuvansalmi in theSaimaa area of Finland.[citation needed]
TheRock Art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin forms a distinct group with the human figure the main focus, often seen in large groups, with battles, dancing, and hunting all represented, as well as other activities and details such as clothing. The figures are generally rather sketchily depicted in thin paint, with the relationships between the groups of humans and animals more carefully depicted than individual figures. PrehistoricCeltic art is another distinct grouping from much ofIron Age Europe and survives mainly in the form of high-status metalwork skillfully decorated with complex, elegant, and mostly abstract designs, often using curving and spiral forms. Full-length human figures of any size are so rare that their absence may represent a religious taboo. As the Romans conquered Celtic territories, the style vanished, except in theBritish Isles, where it influenced theInsular style of the Early Middle Ages.[citation needed]
Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen inAncient Greek sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery.Black-figure pottery and the subsequentred-figure pottery are famous and influential examples of the Ancient Greek decorative arts.[citation needed]
Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting and sculpture, but was also strongly influenced by the more localEtruscan art of Italy. The sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also very highly regarded. TheRoman sculpture is primarily portraiture derived from the upper classes of society as well as depictions of the gods. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. Among surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas inCampania, in Southern Italy, especially atPompeii andHerculaneum. Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples oftrompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.Early Christian art grew out of Roman popular, and later Imperial, art and adapted itsiconography from these sources.
Medieval art can be broadly categorized into the Byzantine art of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the Gothic art that emerged in Western Europe over the same period.
Byzantine art was strongly influenced by its classical heritage but distinguished itself by the development of a new, abstract, aesthetic, marked by anti-naturalism and a favor for symbolism. The subject matter of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial: the two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church ofHagia Sophia in Constantinople. However, the Byzantines inherited theEarly Christian distrust ofmonumental sculpture in religious art, and produced onlyreliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived fromCarolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief. The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art, and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentationConsular diptychs or caskets such as theVeroli casket,hardstone carvings,enamels,glass, jewelry, metalwork, andfigured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era.
Migration Period art includes the art of the Germanic tribes on the continent, as well the start of the distinctInsular art or Hiberno-Saxon art of theAnglo-Saxon and Celtic fusion in theBritish Isles. It covers many different styles of art including the polychrome style and the Scythian and Germanicanimal style. AfterChristianization, Migration Period art developed into various schools of EarlyMedieval art in Western Europe, which are normally classified by region, such asAnglo-Saxon art andCarolingian art, before the continent-wide styles ofRomanesque art and finallyGothic art developed.
Romanesque art andGothic art dominated Western and Central Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of theRenaissance style in the 15th century or later, depending on the region. The Romanesque style was greatly influenced by Byzantine and Insular art. Religious art, such as church sculpture and decorated manuscripts, was particularly prominent. Art of the period was characterized by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. Colors tended to be very striking and mostly primary. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to be squeezed into the shapes ofhistoriated initials, column capitals, and churchtympanums. Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism.
Gothic art developed from Romanesque art in Northern France in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development ofGothic architecture. It spread to all ofWestern Europe, and much ofSouthern andCentral Europe. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style ofInternational Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially England and Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century. Gothic art was oftentypological in nature, showing the stories of the New Testament and the Old Testament side by side. Saints' lives were often depicted. Images of theVirgin Mary changed from the Byzantine iconic form to a more human and affectionate mother, often showing the refined manners of a courtly lady.
Secular art came into its own during the gothic period alongside the creation of abourgeois class who could afford to patronize the arts and commission works. Increased literacy and a growing body ofsecular vernacular literature encouraged the representation of secular themes in art. With the growth of cities, tradeguilds were formed, and artists were often required to be members of apainters' guild—as a result, because of better record-keeping, more artists are known to us by name in this period than any previous.
Renaissance art emerged as a distinct style in northern Italy from around 1420, in parallel with developments which occurred inphilosophy,literature,music, andscience. It took as its foundation the art ofClassical antiquity, but was also influenced by the art of Northern Europe and contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance artists painted a wide variety ofthemes. Religiousaltarpieces,fresco cycles, and small works for private devotion were very popular. Painters in both Italy and northern Europe frequently turned toJacobus de Voragine'sGolden Legend (1260), a highly influential sourcebook for the lives ofsaints that had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. Interest in classical antiquity andRenaissance humanism also resulted in manyMythological andhistory paintings. Decorativeornament, often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs.
Techniques characteristic of Renaissance art include the use ofproportion andlinear perspective;foreshortening, to create an illusion of depth;sfumato, a technique of softening of sharp outlines by subtle blending of tones to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality; andchiaroscuro, the effect of using a strong contrast between light and dark to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality.
Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements—Mannerism and theBaroque. Mannerism, a reaction against the idealist perfection of Classicism, employed distortion of light and spatial frameworks in order to emphasize the emotional content of a painting and the emotions of the painter. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. The style is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. It favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance paintings.
In contrast, Baroque art took the representationalism of the Renaissance to new heights, emphasizing detail, movement, lighting, and drama. Perhaps the best-known Baroque painters areCaravaggio,Rembrandt,Peter Paul Rubens, andDiego Velázquez. Baroque art is often seen as part of theCounter-Reformation— the revival of spiritual life in theRoman Catholic Church. Religious and political themes are widely explored within the Baroque artistic context, and both paintings and sculptures are characterized by a strong element of drama, emotion, and theatricality. Baroque art was particularly ornate and elaborate in nature, often using rich, warm colors with dark undertones.Dutch Golden Age painting is a distinct subset of Baroque, leading to the development of secular genres such asstill life,genre paintings of everyday scenes, andlandscape painting.
By the 18th century, Baroque art had developed intoRococo in France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful. The artistic movement no longer placed emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from the artistic forms and ornamentation ofFar Eastern Asia, resulting in the rise in favor ofporcelain figurines andchinoiserie in general. Rococo soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning.
Neoclassicism began in the 18th century as a counter-movement opposing Rococo. It desired for a return to the simplicity, order, and 'purism' of classical antiquity, especially ancient Greece and Rome. Neoclassicism was the artistic component of the intellectual movement known asthe Enlightenment. Neoclassicism had become widespread in Europe throughout the 18th century, especially in theUnited Kingdom. In many ways, Neoclassicism can be seen as a political movement as well as an artistic and cultural one. Neoclassical art places emphasis on order, symmetry, and classical simplicity; common themes in Neoclassical art include courage and war, as were commonly explored in ancient Greek and Roman art.Ingres,Canova, andJacques-Louis David are among the best-known neoclassicists.
Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism,Romanticism rejected the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists, specifically the highly objective and ordered nature of Neoclassicism, favoring instead a more individual and emotional approach to the arts. Emphasis was placed on nature, especially when aiming to portray the power and beauty of the natural world, and emotions. Romantic art often used colors in order to express feelings and emotions. Romantic art was inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art and mythology, but also takes much of its aesthetic qualities frommedievalism andGothicism, as well as later mythology andfolklore. Among the greatest Romantic artists wereEugène Delacroix,Francisco Goya,J. M. W. Turner,John Constable,Caspar David Friedrich, andWilliam Blake.
In response to these changes caused byIndustrialisation, the movement ofRealism emerged, which sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. While Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism,Realism was a literary as well as an artistic movement. Other contemporary movements were moreHistoricist in nature, such as thePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which attempted to return art to its state of "purity" prior toRaphael, and theArts and Crafts Movement, which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship.
.jpg)
This broad era encompassesearly music, which generally comprisesMedieval music (500–1400) andRenaissance music (1400–1600), but sometimes includesBaroque music (1600–1760).
This era includes thecommon practice period from approximately 1600 to 1900, as well as themodernist andpostmodernist styles that emerged after 1900 and which continue to the present day.
Folk music: Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, traveling, or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, oral tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk music continues to influence popular music in Europe, however its prominence varies across countries. See thelist of European folk music.
Popular music: Europe has imported many different genres of popular music, includingRock,Blues,R&BSoul,Jazz,Hip-Hop andPop. Various modern genres named after Europe are rooted inElectronic dance music (EDM), and includeEuropop,Eurodisco,Eurodance andEurobeat. Popular music can vary considerably across Europe. Styles of music from nations formerly underOttoman rule enrich this variation, with their native musical traditions having fused withOttoman musical influences over centuries.
TheNeolithic long house was a long, narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers inEurope beginning at least as early as the period 5000 to 6000BC.Knap of Howar andSkara Brae, theOrkney Islands, Scotland, are stone-built Neolithic settlements dating from 3,500 BC.Megaliths found in Europe and the Mediterranean were also erected in the Neolithic period. SeeNeolithic architecture.
Ancient Greek architecture was produced by theGreek-speaking people whoseculture flourished on the Greek mainland, thePeloponnese, theAegean Islands, and in colonies inAnatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD. Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalized characteristics, both of structure and decoration. The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: theDoric Order, theIonic Order, and theCorinthian Order, was to have a profound effect on theWestern architecture of later periods.
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classicalGreek architecture for the purposes of theancient Romans, but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a newarchitectural style. The two styles are often considered one body ofclassical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in theRoman Republic and even more so under theEmpire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as thearch and thedome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use.]
Romanesque architecture combines features ofancient Roman andByzantine buildings and other local traditions. It is known for its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdypillars,groin vaults, large towers, and decorativearcading. Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of a very regular,symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials, and is most frequently seen in churches. Plenty of examples of this architecture are found alongside theCamino de Santiago.
Gothic architecture flourished inEurope during theHigh andLate Middle Ages. It evolved fromRomanesque architecture and was succeeded byRenaissance architecture. Originating in 12th centuryFrance and lasting into the 16th century, Gothic architecture was known during the period asOpus Francigenum ("French work"), with the termGothic first appearing during the latter part of theRenaissance. Its characteristics include thepointed arch, theribbed vault (which evolved from the joint vaulting of Romanesque architecture), and theflying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the greatcathedrals,abbeys, and churches of Europe.
Renaissance architecture began in the early 14th and lasted until the early 17th century. It demonstrates a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman architectural thought and material culture, particularly thesymmetry,proportion,geometry, and the regularity of parts of ancient buildings. Developed first inFlorence, withFilippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia, and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact
Palladian architecture was derived from and inspired by the designs of the Italian Renaissance architectAndrea Palladio (1508–1580). Palladio's work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective, and values of the formal classical temple architecture of theAncient Greeks andRomans. From the 17th century, Palladio's interpretation of this classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century, and continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings.
.jpg)
Baroque architecture began in 16th-century Italy. It took theRoman vocabulary ofRenaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion. It was, initially at least, directly linked to theCounter-Reformation, a movement within theCatholic Church to reform itself in response to theProtestant Reformation. Baroque was characterized by new explorations of form, light, and shadow, and a freer treatment of classical elements. It reached its extreme form in theRococo style.
Revivalism was a hallmark of nineteenth-century European architecture. Revivals of theRomanesque,Gothic,Renaissance, andBaroque styles all took place, alongside revivals of the Classical styles. Regional styles, such as EnglishTudor, were also revived, as well as non-European styles, such as Chinese (Chinoiserie) andEgyptian. These revivals often used elements of the original style in a freer way than original examples, sometimes borrowing from multiple styles at once. At Alnwick Castle, for example, Gothic revival elements were added to the exterior of the original medieval castle, while the interiors were designed in a Renaissance style.
Art Nouveau architecture was a reaction against the eclectic styles which dominated European architecture in the second half of the 19th century. It was expressed through decoration. The buildings were covered with ornament in curving forms, based on flowers, plants, or animals: butterflies, peacocks, swans, irises, cyclamens, orchids, and water lilies. Façades were asymmetrical, and often decorated with polychrome ceramic tiles. The decoration usually suggested movement; there was no distinction between the structure and the ornament.
Art Deco architecture began in Brussels in 1903–04. Early buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the facades; they marked a clean break with the Art Nouveau style. After the First World War, art deco buildings of steel and reinforced concrete began to appear in large cities across Europe and the United States. Buildings became more decorated, and interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics, and stainless steel.
Modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles ofarchitecture that emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant afterWorld War II. It was based upon new technologies of construction, particularly the use ofglass,steel, andreinforced concrete; and upon a rejection of the traditionalneoclassical architecture andBeaux-Arts styles that were popular in the 19th century. Modernist architecture continued to be the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 1980s, when it was challenged bypostmodernism.
Expressionist architecture is a form of modern architecture that began during the first decades of the 20th century, in parallel with theexpressionist visual and performing arts that especially developed and dominated inGermany. In the 1950s, the second movement of expressionist architecture developed, initiated by theRonchamp Chapel Notre-Dame-du-Haut (1950–1955) byLe Corbusier. The style was individualistic, but tendencies include Distortion of form for an emotional effect, efforts at achieving the new, original, and visionary, and a conception of architecture as a work of art.
Postmodern architecture emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against the austerity, formality, and lack of variety ofmodern architecture, particularly in theinternational style advocated byLe Corbusier andLudwig Mies van der Rohe. Embraced in the USA first, it spread to Europe. In contrast to Modernist buildings, Postmodern buildings have curved forms, decorative elements, asymmetry, bright colors, and features often borrowed from earlier periods. Colors and textures unrelated to the structure or function of the building. While rejecting the "puritanism" of modernism, it called for a return to ornament, and an accumulation of citations and collages borrowed from past styles. It borrowed freely from classical architecture,Rococo,neoclassical architecture, the Viennesesecession, the BritishArts and Crafts movement, the GermanJugendstil.
Deconstructivist architecture is a movement ofpostmodern architecture which appeared in the 1980s, which gives the impression of the fragmentation of the constructed building. The term first appeared in a 1988 exhibition of the same name in the Museum of Modern Art, new York, which saw the participation of several European architects, including Rem Koolhaas, Zaha Hadid, Bernard Tschumi and Coop Himmelb(l)au. Deonstructivism is characterized by an absence of harmony, continuity, or symmetry. Though its name comes from the idea of "Deconstruction", a form ofsemiotic analysis developed by the French philosopherJacques Derrida, not all architects associated with this architecture were engaged with Derrida's philosophical discourse. Besides fragmentation, Deconstructivism often manipulates the structure's surface skin and creates by non-rectilinear shapes which appear to distort and dislocateelements of architecture. The finished visual appearance is characterized by unpredictability and controlled chaos.
.jpg)
Western literature, also known as European literature,[23] is theliterature written in the context ofWestern culture in thelanguages of Europe, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent western authors, poets, and pieces of literature.
The best of Western literature is considered to be theWestern canon. The list of works in the Western canon varies according to the critic's opinions onWestern culture and the relative importance of its defining characteristics. Different literary periods held great influence on the literature of Western and European countries, with movements and political changes impacting the prose and poetry of the period. The 16th Century is known for the creation of Renaissance literature,[24] while the 17th century was influenced by both Baroque and Jacobean forms.[25] The 18th century progressed into a period known as the Enlightenment Era for many western countries.[26] This period of military and political advancement influenced the style of literature created by French, Russian and Spanish literary figures.[26] The 19th century was known as the Romantic era, in which the style of writing was influenced by the political issues of the century, and differed from the previous classicist form.[27]
As theWestern Roman Empire declined, the Latin tradition was kept alive by writers such asCassiodorus,Boethius, andSymmachus. The liberal arts flourished atRavenna underTheodoric, and the Gothic kings surrounded themselves with masters ofrhetoric and ofgrammar. Some lay schools remained in Italy, and noted scholars includedMagnus Felix Ennodius,Arator,Venantius Fortunatus,Felix the Grammarian,Peter of Pisa,Paulinus of Aquileia, and many others. The later establishment of the medieval universities ofBologna,Padua,Vicenza,Naples,Salerno,Modena andParma helped to spread culture and prepared the ground in which the newvernacular literature developed.[28] Classical traditions did not disappear, and affection for the memory of Rome, a preoccupation with politics, and a preference for practice over theory combined to influence the development of Italian literature.[29]
William Shakespeare was an Englishplaywright,poet andactor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in theEnglish language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often calledEngland'snational poet and the "Bard ofAvon" (or simply "the Bard"). His extant works, includingcollaborations, consist of some39 plays,154 sonnets, three longnarrative poems and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His playshave been translated into every majorliving language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied and reinterpreted.
Dante Alighieri, widely knownmononymously as Dante, was an Italianpoet, writer, and philosopher.[30] HisDivine Comedy, originally calledComedìa (modern Italian:Commedia) and later christenedDivina byGiovanni Boccaccio,[31] is widely considered one of the most important poems of theMiddle Ages and the greatest literary work in the Italian language.[32] Dante is known for establishing the use of thevernacular in literature at a time when most poetry was written inLatin, which was accessible only to educated readers. HisDe vulgari eloquentia (On Eloquence in the Vernacular) was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular. His use of theFlorentine dialect for works such asThe New Life (1295) andDivine Comedy helped establish the modern-day standardized Italian language. His work set a precedent that important Italian writers such asPetrarch andBoccaccio would later follow.
Miguel de Cervantes was a Spanish writer widely regarded as the greatest writer in theSpanish language and one of the world's pre-eminent novelists. He is best known for his novelDon Quixote, a work considered as the first modernnovel.[33][34][35] The novel has been labelled by many well-known authors as the "best book of all time" and the "best and most central work in world literature".[36][35]
Leo Tolstoy was a Russian writer. He is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential authors of all time.[37][38] He received nominations for theNobel Prize in Literature every year from 1902 to 1906 and for theNobel Peace Prize in 1901, 1902, and 1909. Tolstoy never having won a Nobel Prize was a majorNobel Prize controversy, and remains one.[39][40]
Antoine Lumière realized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with theCinematograph, in Paris.[41] In 1897,Georges Méliès established the first cinema studio on a rooftop property in Montreuil, near Paris.Some notable European film movements includeGerman Expressionism,Italian neorealism,French New Wave,Polish Film School,New German Cinema,PortugueseCinema Novo,Movida Madrileña,Czechoslovak New Wave,Dogme 95,New French Extremity, andRomanian New Wave.
![Sir Alfred Hitchcock[42]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHitchcock%2c_Alfred_02.jpg)
![Entrance to Cinecittà in Rome, Italy, the largest film studio in Europe[43]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIngressostorico_cinecitta.jpg)
The cinema of Europe has its own awards, theEuropean Film Awards.Main festivals :Cannes Film Festival (France),Berlin International Film Festival (Germany). TheVenice Film Festival (Italy) or Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia, is the oldest film festival in the world. Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the firstdigital cinema projection inEurope.[44]
Thehistory of science covers the development ofscience fromancient times to thepresent. It encompasses all three majorbranches of science:natural,social, andformal.[45]Protoscience,early sciences, and natural philosophies such asalchemy andastrology during theBronze Age,Iron Age,classical antiquity, and theMiddle Ages declined during theearly modern period after the establishment of formal disciplines ofscience in the Age of Enlightenment.
Science's earliest roots can be traced toAncient Egypt andMesopotamia around 3000 to 1200BCE.[46][47] These civilizations' contributions tomathematics,astronomy, andmedicine influenced later Greeknatural philosophy ofclassical antiquity, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in thephysical world based on natural causes.[46][47] After thefall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge ofGreek conceptions of the world deteriorated inLatin-speakingWestern Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) ofthe Middle Ages,[48] but continued to thrive in theGreek-speakingByzantine Empire. Aided by translations of Greek texts, theHellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed into theArabic-speakingMuslim world during theIslamic Golden Age.[49] The recovery and assimilation ofGreek works andIslamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.[48][50] Traditions of early science were also developed inancient India and separately inancient China, theChinese model having influencedVietnam,Korea andJapan beforeWestern exploration.[51] Among thePre-Columbian peoples ofMesoamerica, theZapotec civilization established their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics forproducing calendars, followed by other civilizations such as theMaya.
Natural philosophy was transformed during theScientific Revolution in 16th- to 17th-century Europe,[52][53][54] asnew ideas and discoveries departed fromprevious Greek conceptions and traditions.[55][56][57][58] The New Science that emerged was moremechanistic in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly definedscientific method.[56][59][60] More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. Thechemical revolution of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements forchemistry.[61] In the19th century, new perspectives regarding theconservation of energy,age of Earth, andevolution came into focus.[62][63][64][65][66][67] And in the 20th century, new discoveries ingenetics andphysics laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such asmolecular biology andparticle physics.[68][69] Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of "big science," particularly afterWorld War II.[68][69][70]
Western philosophy, also known as European philosophy, refers to thephilosophical thought, traditions and works of theWestern world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking ofWestern culture, beginning with theancient Greek philosophy of thepre-Socratics. The wordphilosophy itself originated from theAncient Greekphilosophía (φιλοσοφία), literally, "the love of wisdom"Ancient Greek:φιλεῖνphileîn, "to love" and σοφίαsophía, "wisdom". European philosophy is a predominant strand of philosophy globally, and is central to philosophical enquiry in theAmericas and most other parts of the world which have fallen under its influence. The Greek schools of philosophy inantiquity provide the basis of philosophical discourse that extends to today.Christian thought had a huge influence on many fields of European philosophy (as European philosophy has been on Christian thought too), sometimes as a reaction. Many political ideologies were theorized in Europe, such ascapitalism,communism,fascism,socialism, oranarchism.
The scope of ancient Western philosophy included the problems of philosophy as they are understood today; but it also included many other disciplines, such aspure mathematics andnatural sciences such asphysics,astronomy, andbiology (Aristotle, for example, wrote on all of these topics). The Classical period of ancient Greek philosophy centers onSocrates and the two generations of students who followed. Medieval philosophy roughly extends from the Christianization of theRoman Empire until the Renaissance.[71] It is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classicalGreek andHellenistic philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then-widespread sacred doctrines ofAbrahamic religion (Judaism,Christianity, andIslam) withsecular learning. Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation offaith toreason, the existence and unity ofGod, the object oftheology andmetaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation.
The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,[72] in which the recovery ofancient Greek philosophical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.[73][74] The term "modern philosophy" has multiple usages. For example,Thomas Hobbes is sometimes considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political philosophy.[75][76] By contrast,René Descartes is often considered the first modern philosopher because he grounded his philosophy in problems ofknowledge, rather than problems of metaphysics.[77]
German idealism emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work ofImmanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s.[78]Transcendental idealism, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote hisCritique of Pure Reason (1781) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose aconceptual orcategorical framework on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained thatthings-in-themselves existed independently of human perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Kant's account of things-in-themselves is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work,Johann Gottlieb Fichte andFriedrich Schelling dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy.
The three major contemporary approaches to academic philosophy areanalytic philosophy,continental philosophy andpragmatism.[79] They are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. The20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th-century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures includeBertrand Russell,Ludwig Wittgenstein,Edmund Husserl,Martin Heidegger, andJean-Paul Sartre.
_Founder_of_the_Jesuits.jpg)
Christianity has been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years.[81][82][83][84][85] Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus. And throughout most of its history, European values have been nearly synonymous withChristian culture.[86]Christian culture is said to have been the predominant force inwestern civilization, guiding the course ofphilosophy,art, andscience.[87][88] The notion of "Europe and theWestern World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unifiedEuropean identity.[89]
Religion has been a major influence on the societies, cultures,traditions,philosophies,artistic expressions andlaws within present-day Europe. The largestreligion in Europe isChristianity.[90] However,irreligion and practicalsecularisation are also prominent in some countries.[91][92] In Southeastern Europe, three countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina,Kosovo andAlbania) haveMuslim majorities, with Christianity being the second-largest religion in those countries.
Little is known about theprehistoric religion ofNeolithic Europe. Bronze and Iron Agereligion in Europe as elsewhere was predominantlypolytheistic and includedAncient Greek religion,Ancient Roman religion,Slavic paganism,Finnish paganism,Celtic polytheism andGermanic paganism. Modern revival movements of these religions, and religions influenced by them, includeHeathenism,Rodnovery,Romuva,Druidry,Wicca.
TheRoman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380. Most of Europe underwentChristianisation during theEarly Middle Ages, with the process being essentially complete with theChristianisation of Lithuania in theHigh Middle Ages, with the exception ofAl-Andalus. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christendom", and many even consider Christianity as the unifying belief that created aEuropean identity,[93] especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise ofIslam from the 8th century. This confrontation led to theCrusades, which ultimately failed militarily, but were an important step in the emergence of a European identity based on religion. Despite this, traditions offolk religion continued at all times, largely independent from institutional religion or dogmatic theology.
TheGreat Schism of the 11th century andReformation of the 16th century tore apart Christendom into hostile factions, and following theAge of Enlightenment of the 18th century,atheism andagnosticism have spread across Europe. Nineteenth-centuryOrientalism contributed to a certain popularity ofHinduism andBuddhism, and the 20th century brought increasingsyncretism,New Age, and variousnew religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. Recent times have seen increased secularisation andreligious pluralism.[94] Smaller religions includeIndian religions,Judaism, and someEast Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups inBritain,France, andKalmykia.
Christianity is the largest religion in Europe, with 76.2% ofEuropeans considering themselvesChristian in 2010,[95] As 2010,Catholics were the largestChristian group inEurope, accounting for more than 48% of European Christians. The second-largest Christian group in Europe was theOrthodox, who made up 32% of European Christians. About 19% of European Christians were part of theProtestant tradition.[95]Russia is the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed byGermany andItaly.[95] In 2012 Europe constituted in absolute terms theworld's largest Christian population.[96] Historically, Europe has been the center and cradle ofChristian civilization.[97][98][99][100]Christianity playeda prominent role in the development of the European culture andidentity.[101][102][103]
According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970),[104][105] these changes were largely result of thecollapse of Communism andswitching to Christianity in the former Soviet Union andEastern Bloc countries.[104]
According to the German Central Institute for Islamic Archives, the number of Muslims in Europe is approximately 53 million (5.2%),[106] including Russia and the European part of Turkey. Within the European Union, Muslims number around 16 million (3.2%). A 2010 Pew Research Center study estimated that Europe—excluding Turkey—had about 44 million Muslims, representing roughly 6% of the continent’s population.
Historically, Islamic thought played a major role in shaping the European Enlightenment through the transmission of Arabic knowledge into Latin beginning in the twelfth century. Between 711 and 1492, Islamic al-Andalus became a leading center for the study of the Classical heritage.[107] Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) exerted significant influence. Ibn Sīnā’s comprehensive philosophical and medical system shaped European universities for centuries, while Ibn Rushd’s rationalist commentaries revived Aristotelianism and laid the foundations of Latin Averroism, reinforcing traditions of demonstration and critical inquiry that later became pillars of the europeanRenaissance.[108][109]
Judaism also has a long history in Europe, beginning with Pompey’s conquest of the eastern Mediterranean in 63 BCE. Jewish presence dates to Roman times, with additional migration from Alexandria to Rome. Before World War II, Europe’s Jewish population was around nine million. Today, the largest Jewish community in Europe is in France, where Jews constitute roughly 1% of the population.
Despite the historical and demographic significance of Islam in Europe, the notion of a “Judeo-Christian civilization” gained traction after World War II and the Holocaust.Sophie Bessis describes this concept as an “ideological fabrication” that constructs an artificial Western identity. The term gained prominence in the 1980s as a strategy to symbolically integrate Jews into a unified Western narrative while redefining “the Other” as Islam. Bessis argues that the concept is theoretically hollow and functions as an exclusionary device that underpins contemporary political discourses, includingIslamophobic narratives.[110]
In the late twentieth century, Europe experienced rising secularization alongside growing atheism and agnosticism, accompanied by a decline in regular religious practice. Countries such as East Germany, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden have seen strong secular trends. According to a 2012 Pew Research study, the non-religious constituted 18.2% of Europe’s population, forming the majority only in the Czech Republic (75%) and Estonia (60%). Eurobarometer data from 2012 similarly indicated that atheists and the non-religious represent 23% of the population in the European Union.[111]
The cuisines of European countries are diverse by themselves, although there are common characteristics that distinguish European cooking from cuisines ofAsian countries and others.[112][113] Compared with traditional cooking of Asian countries, for example, meat is more prominent and substantial in serving-size.Dairy products are often utilized in the cooking process. Wheat-flourbread has long been the most common source ofstarch in this cuisine, along withpasta,dumplings, andpastries, although thepotato has become a major starch plant in the diet of Europeans and their diaspora since theEuropean colonization of the Americas.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
The earliest definite examples of needles originate from theSolutrean culture, which existed in France and Spain from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a cave in Georgia and date back to 36,000 BP. SeeClothing in ancient Rome,1100–1200 in fashion,1200–1300 in fashion,1300–1400 in fashion,1400–1500 in fashion,1500–1550 in fashion,1550–1600 in fashion,1600–1650 in fashion,1650–1700 in fashion,Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution. Italian fashion has a long tradition.Top Global Fashion Capital Rankings (2013), byGlobal Language Monitor, ranked Rome sixth and Milan twelfth.[114] MajorItalian fashion labels—such asGucci,Armani,Prada,Versace,Valentino,Dolce & Gabbana—are among the finest fashion houses in the world. Jewellers such asBulgari,Damiani, andBuccellati were founded in Italy. The fashion magazineVogue Italia is one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.[115] Italy is prominentin the field of design, notably interior, architectural, industrial, and urban designs.[116][117] Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural and industrial design. The city of Milan hostsFiera Milano, Europe's largest design fair.[118] Milan hosts major design- and architecture-related events and venues, such as theFuori Salone and theMilan Furniture Fair, and has been home to the designersBruno Munari,Lucio Fontana,Enrico Castellani, andPiero Manzoni.[119]
Ancient Olympic Games, or the ancient Olympics, were a series ofathletic competitions among representatives ofcity-states and one of thePanhellenic Games ofancient Greece. They were held at thePanhellenic religious sanctuary ofOlympia, in honor ofZeus, and the Greeks gave them amythological origin. The originating Olympic Games are traditionally dated to 776 BC.[120] The games were held every four years, orOlympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies. These Olympiads were referred to based on the winner of theirstadion sprint, e.g., "the third year of the eighteenth Olympiad when Ladas of Argos won thestadion".[121] They continued to be celebrated when Greece came underRoman rule in the 2nd century BC. Their last recorded celebration was in AD 393, under the emperorTheodosius I, but archaeological evidence indicates that some games were still held after this date.[122][123] The games likely came to an end underTheodosius II, possibly in connection with a fire that burned down thetemple of the Olympian Zeus during his reign.[124]
During the celebration of the games, theOlympic truce (ekecheiría) was announced so that athletes and religious pilgrims could travel from their cities to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors wereolive leaf wreaths or crowns. The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance over their rival city states. Politicians would announce political alliances at the games, and in times of war, priests would offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. The games were also used to help spreadHellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations. Thestatue of Zeus at Olympia was counted as one of theseven wonders of the ancient world. Sculptors and poets would congregate each Olympiad to display their works of art to would-be patrons.
The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and for many years only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate,[125] although there were victorious women chariot owners. Moreover, throughout their history, the Olympics, both ancient and modern, have occasionally become arenas where political expressions, such as demonstrations, boycotts, and embargoes, have been employed by nations and individuals to exert influence over these sporting events.[126] As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any Greekcity-state and kingdom were allowed to participate. The games were always held at Olympia rather than moving between different locations like themodern Olympic Games.[127] Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations.
The modernOlympic Games are the world's leading international sporting events. They feature summer andwinter sports competitions in which thousands ofathletes from around the world participate in avariety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered the world's foremost sports competition, with more than 200 teams, representing sovereign states and territories, participating. By default, the Games generally substitute for anyworld championships during the year in which they take place (however, each class usually maintains its own records).[128] The Olympics are staged every four years. Since1994, they have alternated between theSummer andWinter Olympics every two years during the four-yearOlympiad.[129][130]
Their creation was inspired by theancient Olympic Games, held inOlympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD.Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded theInternational Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games inAthens in1896. The IOC is the governing body of theOlympic Movement, which encompasses all entities and individuals involved in the Olympic Games. TheOlympic Charter defines their structure and authority.
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in numerous changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for snow and ice sports, theParalympic Games for athletes with disabilities, theYouth Olympic Games for athletes aged 14 to 18, the five Continental Games (Pan American,African,Asian,European, andPacific), and theWorld Games for sports that are not contested in the Olympic Games. The IOC also endorses theDeaflympics and theSpecial Olympics. The IOC need to adapt to a variety of economic, political, and technological advancements. Theabuse of amateur rules prompted the IOC to shift away from pureamateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to the acceptance ofprofessional athletes participating at the Games. The growing importance of mass media has created the issue ofcorporate sponsorship and general commercialisation of the Games. World WarsI andII led to the cancellation of the1916,1940, and1944 Olympics; large-scale boycotts during theCold War limited participation in the1980 and1984 Olympics;[131] and the2020 Olympics were postponed until 2021 because of theCOVID-19 restrictions.
.jpg)
_39.JPG)
In addition, Europe has numerous national or regional sports which do not command a large international following outside of emigrant groups. These include:
Some sports competitions feature aEuropean team gathering athletes from different European countries. These teams use the European flag as an emblem. The most famous of these competitions is theRyder Cup in golf. Some sporting organizations hold European Championships likeEuropean Cricket Council, theEuropean Games, theEuropean Rugby Cup (Club/Regional competition), theEuropean SC Championships, theFIRA - Association of European Rugby, theIIHF, theMitropa Cup, theRugby League European Federation -European Championship, theSport in the European Union and theUEFA.
See:Politics of the European Union
Each year since 1985 one or more cities across Europe are chosen asEuropean Capital of Culture, an EU initiative. Here are the past and future capitals:
A number of symbols ofEurope have emerged since antiquity, notably the mythological figure ofEuropa. Several symbols were introduced in the 1950s and 1960s by theEuropean Council. TheEuropean Communities created additional symbols for itself in 1985, which was to become inherited by theEuropean Union (EU) in 1993. Suchsymbols of the European Union now represent political positions in support of EU policies andEuropean integration as advocated byEuropeans.
Europa was used as a geographical term, for one of the great divisions of theknown world, byHerodotus (in a reduced geographical scope, referring to parts ofThrace orEpirus, also in theHomeric hymn toApollo). It became the geographical term for the landmass west of theTanais in the Roman-era geography byStrabo andPtolemy.Europa first began to be used in a cultural sense, denoting the territory ofLatinChristendom, in theCarolingian period.Europa is a feminine name, the name of anymph inHesiod, and in a legend first related byHerodotus, the name of aPhoenician noble-woman abducted by Greeks (in Herodotus' opinion,Cretans). The classical legend of Europa being abducted not by Greek pirates but byZeus in the shape of abull is told inOvid'sMetamorphoses. According to the account, Zeus took the guise of a tame white bull and mixed himself with the herds of Europa's father. While Europa and her female attendants were gathering flowers, she saw the bull, and got onto his back. Zeus took that opportunity and ran to the sea and swam, with her on his back, to the island ofCrete. There he revealed his true identity, and Europa became the first queen of Crete. Zeus gave her a necklace made byHephaestus and three additional gifts:Talos,Laelaps and ajavelin that never missed. Zeus later re-created the shape of the white bull in the stars, which is now known as the constellationTaurus.
Europa regina (Latin forQueen Europe) is thecartographic depiction of the European continent as a queen.[134][135] Introduced and made popular during themannerist period,Europa Regina is themap-like depiction of theEuropean continent as a queen.[134][135] Made popular in the 16th century, the map shows Europe as a young and graceful woman wearingimperial regalia. TheIberian Peninsula (Hispania) is the head, wearing a crown shaped like theCarolingianhoop crown. ThePyrenees, forming the neck, separate the Iberian Peninsula fromFrance (Gallia), which makes up the upper chest. TheHoly Roman Empire (Germania and other territories) is the centre of the torso, withBohemia (sometimesAustria in early depictions) being the heart of the woman (alternatively described as a medallion at her waist). Her long gown stretches toHungary,Poland,Lithuania,Livonia,Bulgaria,Muscovy,Macedonia andGreece. In her arms, formed byItaly andDenmark, she holds asceptre and anorb (Sicily).[136] In most depictions,Africa,Asia and theScandinavian peninsula are partially shown,[136] as are theBritish Isles, in schematic form.[136]
Charlemagne (Latin:Carolus Magnus;King of the Franks from 768;Holy Roman Emperor c. 742 – 814), also known as Charles the Great, is considered the founder of theFrench andGerman monarchies. Known asPater Europae («Father of Europe»),[137][138] he establishedan empire that represented the most expansive European unification since thefall of the Western Roman Empire and brought abouta renaissance that formed a pan-European identity whilst marking the end ofLate Antiquity.[137][139] There was also a contemporary intellectual and cultural revival which profoundly marked the history of Western Europe. This gave Charlemagne a legendary standing that transcended his military accomplishments.[137][140][141]
TheRoman Catholic Church venerates six saints as "patrons of Europe".Benedict of Nursia had been declared "Patron saint of all Europe" byPope Paul VI in 1964.[142]Pope John Paul II named between 1980 and 1999 Ss.Cyril and Methodius,Bridget of Sweden,Catherine of Siena andTeresa Benedicta of the Cross as co-patrons.[143][142]
Aflag of Europe was introduced by theCouncil of Europe in 1955, originally intended as a "symbol for the whole of Europe",[144] but due to its adoption by theEuropean Economic Community (EEC) in 1985, and hence by theEuropean Union (EU) as the successor organisation of the EEC, the flag is now strongly associated with the European Union so that it no longer serves the function of representing "Europe as a whole" at least since the early 2000s. The flag has notably been used by pro-EU protestors in thecolour revolutions of the 2000s, e.g., inBelarus in 2004[145] by the pro-EU faction in theEuromaidan riots in Ukraine in 2013, and by thepro-EU faction in theBrexit campaigns of 2016.
The awareness that East and West were not only different regions of the world but also regions filled with different peoples, with different cultures, worshipping different gods and, most crucially, holding different views on how best to live their lives, we owe not to an Asian but to a Western people: the Greeks. It was a Greek historian,Herodotus, writing in the fifth century B.C.E., who first stopped to ask what it was that divided Europe and Asia [...] This East as Herodotus knew it, the lands that lay between the European peninsula and the Ganges
The concept of the Western world, as opposed to other parts of the world, was born in ancient Greece, specifically in the years 480-479 BCE, when the ancient Greek city states fought against the powerfulPersian Empire to the east.
Building on concepts from the Near East, Greeks originated the idea of the West as a separate region, identifying Europe as the West (where the sun sets) and different from the East (where the sun rises).
TheDavid in Florence's Accademia is young Michelangelo's masterpiece.
...a masterpiece of throbbing vitality.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Bartoli, Adolfo; Oelsner, Hermann (1911). "Italian Literature". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 898.Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands, Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from the audience) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Most Europeans adhere to one of three broad divisions of Christianity: Roman Catholicism in the west and southwest, Protestantism in the north, and Eastern Orthodoxy in the east and southeast
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)..for the Jews in twentieth-century Europe, the cradle of Christian civilization.
..for the Jews in twentieth-century Europe, the cradle of Christian civilization.
Europe is historically the cradle of Christian culture, it is still the primary center of institutional and pastoral energy in the Catholic Church...
Europe is historically the cradle of Christian culture, it is still the primary center of institutional and pastoral energy in the Catholic Church...
Christianity has undoubtedly shaped European identity, culture, destiny, and history.
