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Theculture of Egypt has thousands of years ofrecorded history. A cradle of civilization,Ancient Egypt was among the earliestcivilizations in the world. For millennia,Egypt developed strikingly unique, complex and stable cultures that influenced other cultures ofEurope,Africa andAsia.[1]
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Arabic is currently Egypt's official language. It came to Egypt in the 7th century,[2] and it is the formal and official language of the state which is used by the government and newspapers. Meanwhile, theEgyptian Arabic dialect orMasri is the official spoken language of the people. Of the manyvarieties of Arabic, the Egyptian dialect is the most widely spoken and the most understood, due to the great influence ofEgyptian cinema and the Egyptian media throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Today many foreign students tend to learn it throughoutEgyptian songs and movies, and the dialect is usually labelled by the general public as one of the easiest and fastest to learn, mainly due to the huge amount of accessible sources (movies, series, TV shows, books, etc.) that contribute to its learning process.[citation needed] Egypt's position in the heart of the Arabic speaking world has made it the centre of culture and its widespread dialect has had a huge influence on almost all neighbouring dialects, having so many Egyptian sayings in their daily lives.[citation needed]
TheEgyptian language, which formed a separate branch among the family ofAfro-Asiatic languages, was among the first written languages and is known from thehieroglyphic inscriptions preserved on monuments and sheets ofpapyrus. TheCoptic language, the most recent stage of Egyptian written in mainlyGreek alphabet with seven demotic letters, is today theliturgical language of theCoptic Orthodox Church.[3]
The "Koiné" dialect of theGreek language was important in Hellenistic Alexandria, and was used in the philosophy and science of that culture, and was later studied by Arabic scholars.[4]
In the upper Nile Valley, southern Egypt, aroundKom Ombo and south ofAswan, there are about 300,000 speakers ofNubian languages; mainlyNoubi, but also Kenuzi-Dongola. In Siwa Oasis, there is also theSiwi language that is spoken by about 20,000 speakers. Other minorities include roughly two thousandGreek speakers inAlexandria andCairo as well as roughly 5,000Armenian speakers.[citation needed]
ManyEgyptians believed that when it came to a death of their Pharaoh, they would have to bury the Pharaoh deep inside the Pyramid.The ancient Egyptian literature dates back to theOld Kingdom, in the third millennium BC. Religious literature is best known for itshymns to and its mortuary texts. The oldest extant Egyptian literature is thePyramid Texts: the mythology and rituals carved around the tombs of rulers. The later, secular literature of ancient Egypt includes the "wisdom texts", forms of philosophical instruction. TheInstruction of Ptahhotep, for example, is a collation of moral proverbs by an Egto (the middle of the second millennium BC) seem to have been drawn from an elite administrative class, and were celebrated and revered into theNew Kingdom (to the end of the second millennium). In time, the Pyramid Texts becameCoffin Texts (perhaps after the end of the Old Kingdom), and finally, the mortuary literature produced its masterpiece, theBook of the Dead, during the New Kingdom.[citation needed]
TheMiddle Kingdom was the golden age of Egyptian literature. Some texts include the Tale of Neferty, the Instructions ofAmenemhat I, theTale of Sinuhe, the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor and the Story of the Eloquent Peasant.Instructions became a popular literary genre of theNew Kingdom, taking the form of advice on proper behavior. TheStory of Wenamun and theInstruction of Any are examples from this period.[5][6]
During theGreco-Roman period (332 BC − AD 639), Egyptian literature was translated into other languages, and Greco-Roman literature fused with native art into a new style of writing. From this period comes theRosetta Stone, which became the key to unlocking the mysteries of Egyptian writing to modern scholarship. The city ofAlexandria boasted itsLibrary of almost half a million handwritten books during the third century BC. Alexandria's center of learning also produced the Greek translation of theHebrew Bible, theSeptuagint.
During the first few centuries of the Christian era, Egypt was a source of a great deal of ascetic literature in theCoptic language. Egyptian monasteries translated manyGreek andSyriac words, which are now only extant in Coptic. UnderIslam, Egypt continued to be a great source of literary endeavor, now in theArabic language. In 970,al-Azhar University was founded in Cairo, which to this day remains the most important center ofSunni Islamic learning. In 12th-century Egypt, the JewishTalmudic scholarMaimonides produced his most important work.
In contemporary times, Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic-language literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. The first modern Egyptian novelZaynab byMuhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in theEgyptian vernacular. Egyptian novelistNaguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win theNobel Prize in Literature. Many Egyptian books and films are available throughout theMiddle East. Other Egyptian writers includeNawal El Saadawi, known for herfeminist works and activism, andAlifa Rifaat who also wrote about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is said to be the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented byBayram el-Tunsi,Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi),Salah Jaheen andAbdel Rahman el-Abnudi.
An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes ofPan-Arabism is the work ofAziz Pasha Abaza. He came fromAbaza family which produced notable Arabic literary figures including Ismail Pasha Abaza,Fekry Pasha Abaza, novelistTharwat Abaza, and Desouky Bek Abaza, among others.[7][8]
About 85-95% percent of Egypt's population isMuslim, with aSunni majority. About 5- 15% percent of the population isCoptic Christian; other religions and other forms ofChristianity comprise the remaining three percent.[9]Sunni Islam sees Egypt as an important part of its religion due to not only Quranic verses mentioning the country, but also due to the Al-Azhar University, one of the earliest of the world universities. It was created as a school for religion studies and works.[citation needed]
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements inart. Thewall painting done in the service of thePharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Early Egyptian art is characterized by the absence oflinear perspective, which results in a seemingly flat space. These artists tended to create images based on what they knew, and not as much on what they saw. Objects in these artworks generally do not decrease in size as they increase in distance and there is little shading to indicatedepth. Sometimes, distance is indicated through the use oftiered space, where more distant objects are drawn higher above the nearby objects, but in the same scale and with no overlapping of forms. People and objects are almost always drawn in profile.
Painting achieved its greats height inDynasty XVIII during the reigns ofTuthmose IV andAmenhotep III. The Fragmentary panel of the Lady Thepu, on the right, dates from the time of the latter king.[10]
Early Egyptian artists did have a system for maintaining dimensions within artwork. They used a grid system that allowed them to create a smaller version of the artwork, and then scale up the design based upon proportional representation in a larger grid.
Modern andcontemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene. Some well-known names includeMahmoud Mokhtar,Abdel Hadi Al Gazzar,Farouk Hosny,Gazbia Sirry,Kamal Amin,Hussein El Gebaly,Sawsan Amer and many others. Many artists in Egypt have taken on modern media such as digital art and this has been the theme of many exhibitions inCairo in recent times. There has also been a tendency to use the World Wide Web as an alternative outlet for artists and there is a strong Art-focused internet community on groups that have found origin in Egypt.
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There have been many architectural styles used in Egyptian buildings over the centuries, includingAncient Egyptian architecture,Greco-Roman architecture,Islamic architecture, andmodern architecture.
Ancient Egyptian architecture is best known for its monumentaltemples and tombs built in stone, including its famouspyramids, such as thepyramids of Giza. These were built with a distinctive repertoire of elements includingpylon gateways,hypostyle halls,obelisks, andhieroglyphic decoration. The advent of GreekPtolemaic rule, followed byRoman rule, introduced elements of Greco-Roman architecture into Egypt, especially in the capital city ofAlexandria. After this cameCoptic architecture, includingearly Christian architecture, which continued to follow ancient classical andByzantine influences.
Following theMuslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century, Islamic architecture flourished. A new capital,Fustat, was founded; it became the center of monumental architectural patronage thenceforth, and through successive new administrative capitals, it eventually became the modern city ofCairo. Early Islamic architecture displayed a mix of influences, including classical antiquity and new influences from the east such as theAbbasid style that radiated from theAbbasid Caliphate's heartland inMesopotomia (present-dayIraq) during the 9th century. In the 10th century, Egypt became the center of a new empire, theFatimid Caliphate.Fatimid architecture initiated further developments that influenced the architectural styles of subsequent periods.Saladin, who overthrew the Fatimids and founded theAyyubid dynasty in the 12th century, was responsible for constructing theCairo Citadel, which remained the center of government until the 19th century. During theMamluk period (13th–16th centuries), a wealth of monumental religious and funerary complexes were built, constituting much of Cairo's medieval heritage today. TheMamluk architectural style continued to linger even after theOttoman conquest of 1517, when Egypt became anOttoman province.
In the early 19th century,Muhammad Ali began to modernize Egyptian society and encouraged a break with traditional medieval architectural traditions, initially by emulating lateOttoman architectural trends. Under the reign of his grandsonIsma'il Pasha (1860s and 1870s), reform efforts were pushed further, theSuez Canal was constructed (inaugurated in 1869), and a newHaussmann-influenced expansion of Cairo began. European tastes became strongly evident in architecture in the late 19th century, though there was also a trend of reviving what were seen as indigenous or "national" architectural styles, such as the manyNeo-Mamluk buildings of this era. In the 20th century, some Egyptian architects pushed back against dominant Western ideas of architecture. Among them,Hassan Fathy was known for adapting indigenous vernacular architecture to modern needs. Since then, Egypt continues to see new buildings erected in a variety of styles and for various purposes, ranging from housing projects to more monumental prestige projects like theCairo Tower (1961) and theBibliotheca Alexandrina (2002).Egypt's cultural contributions have included great works ofscience,art, andmathematics, dating fromantiquity to modern times.
Considered to be the first engineer, architect and physician in history known by name,Imhotep designed thePyramid of Djoser (theStep Pyramid) atSaqqara inEgypt around2630–2611 BC, and may have been responsible for the first known use ofcolumns inarchitecture. The Egyptian historianManetho credited him with inventing stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, though he was not the first to actually build with stone. Imhotep is also believed to have foundedEgyptian medicine, being the author of the world's earliest known medical document, theEdwin Smith Papyrus.
The silk road led straight through ancient Alexandria. Also, theRoyal Library of Alexandria was once the largest in the world. It is usually assumed to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC during the reign ofPtolemy II of Egypt after his father had set up theTemple of the Muses orMuseum. The initial organization is attributed toDemetrius Phalereus. The Library is estimated to have stored at its peak 400,000 to 700,000scrolls.
One of the reasons so little is known about the Library is that it was lost centuries after its creation. All that is left of many of the volumes are tantalizing titles that hint at all the history lost due to the building's destruction. Few events in ancient history are as controversial as the destruction of the Library, as the historical record is both contradictory and incomplete. Its destruction has been attributed by some authors to, among others,Julius Caesar,Augustus, and Catholic zealots during the purge of the Arian heresy, Not surprisingly, the Great Library became a symbol of knowledge itself, and its destruction was attributed to those who were portrayed as ignorantbarbarians, often for purely political reasons.
Anew library was inaugurated in 2003 near the site of the old library.
TheLighthouse of Alexandria, one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World, designed bySostratus of Cnidus and built during the reign ofPtolemy I Soter served as the city's landmark, and later, lighthouse.
Alexandria, being the center of the Hellenistic world, produced a number of great mathematicians, astronomers, and scientists such asCtesibius,Pappus, andDiophantus. It also attracted scholars from all over the Mediterranean such asEratosthenes ofCyrene.
Ptolemy is one of the most famous astronomers and geographers from Egypt, famous for his work inAlexandria. Born Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαίος;c. 85 – c. 165), he was ageographer,astronomer, andastrologer.[12]
Ptolemy was the author of two important scientific treatises. One is the astronomical treatise that is now known as theAlmagest (in GreekΗ μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great Treatise"). In this work, one of the most influential books of antiquity, Ptolemy compiled the astronomical knowledge of the ancient Greek andBabylonian world. Ptolemy's other main work is hisGeography. This too is a compilation, of what was known about the world'sgeography in the Roman Empire in his time.
In hisOptics, a work which survives only in an Arabic translation, he writes about properties oflight, includingreflection,refraction andcolour. His other works includePlanetary Hypothesis,Planisphaerium andAnalemma. Ptolemy's treatise on astrology, theTetrabiblos, was the most popularastrological work of antiquity and also enjoyed great influence in theIslamic world and themedievalLatinWest.
Ptolemy also wrote influential work Harmonics on music theory. After criticizing the approaches of his predecessors, Ptolemy argued for basing musical intervals on mathematical ratios (in contrast to the followers of Aristoxenus) backed up by empirical observation (in contrast to the over-theoretical approach of the Pythagoreans). He presented his own divisions of the tetrachord and the octave, which he derived with the help of a monochord. Ptolemy's astronomical interests appeared in a discussion of the music of the spheres.
Tributes to Ptolemy include Ptolemaeus crater on the Moon and Ptolemaeus crater on Mars.
Ahmed Zewail (Arabic:أحمد زويل) (born February 26, 1946) is an Egyptianchemist, and the winner of the 1999Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work onfemtochemistry. Born inDamanhur (60 km south-east ofAlexandria) and raised inDisuq, he moved to theUnited States to complete his PhD at theUniversity of Pennsylvania. He was awarded a faculty appointment atCaltech in 1976, where he has remained since.
Zewail's key work has been as the pioneer offemtochemistry. He developed a method using a rapidlaser technique (consisting ofultrashort laser flashes), which allows the description of reactions at theatomic level. It can be viewed as a highly sophisticated form offlash photography
In 1999, Zewail became the third Egyptian to receive theNobel Prize, followingAnwar Sadat (1978 in Peace) andNaguib Mahfouz (1988 in Literature). In 1999, he received Egypt's highest state honor, theGrand Collar of the Nile.
In modern times,archaeology and the study of Egypt's ancient heritage as the field ofEgyptology has become a major scientific pursuit in the country itself. The field began during theMiddle Ages, and has been led by Europeans and Westerners in modern times. The study of Egyptology, however, has in recent decades been taken up by Egyptian archæologists such asZahi Hawass and theSupreme Council of Antiquities he leads.
The discovery of the Rosetta Stone, a tablet written in ancient Greek, EgyptianDemotic script, and Egyptian hieroglyphs, has partially been credited for the recent stir in the study of Ancient Egypt.Greek, a well-known language, gave linguists the ability to decipher the mysterious Egyptian hieroglyphic language. The ability to decipher hieroglyphics facilitated the translation of hundreds of the texts and inscriptions that were previously indecipherable, giving insight into Egyptian culture that would have otherwise been lost to the ages. The stone was discovered on July 15, 1799, in the port town ofRosetta, Egypt, and has been held in theBritish Museum since 1802.
Football is the most popular sport in Egypt. Egyptian football clubs, especiallyZamalek andAl Ahly are known throughout Africa. TheEgyptian national football team won theAfrican Cup of Nations a record 7 times (in 1957, 1959, 1986, 1998, 2006 (on home soil), 2008 and 2010). Egypt was the first African country to joinFIFA, but it has only made it to theFIFA World Cup three times, in 1934, 1990 and 2018. Egypt also won theWorld Military Cup five times and finished as runners-up twice.[citation needed]
Other popular sports in Egypt arebasketball,handball,squash, andtennis.[citation needed]
TheEgyptian national basketball team holds the record for best performance at theBasketball World Cup and at theSummer Olympics in Middle East and Africa.[13][14] Egypt hosted the2017 FIBA Under-19 Basketball World Cup and is the only African country to host an official basketball world cup at junior or senior level.[citation needed] Further, the country hosted the officialAfrican Basketball Championship on six occasions. Egypt also hosted multiple continental youth championships including the 2020FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship and the 2020FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship for Women.[15]The Pharaohs, as they are commonly known, won 16 medals at theAfrican Championship.[citation needed]
Since the early 1990s, theEgyptian national handball team has won regional and continental tournaments as well as reaching fourth place internationally in 2001. The Junior national handball team won the world title in 1993 and it hosted the tournament in 2010.[citation needed]
Local sports clubs receive financial support from the local governments, and many sporting clubs are financially and administratively supported by the government.[citation needed]
In 1940,[19] Egyptian cinema has flourished since the 1930s.[20] As a result, the Egyptian capital has been dubbed the "Hollywood of the Middle East", where the world-renownedCairo International Film Festival is held every year. The festival has been rated by theInternational Federation of Film Producers Associations as being among the 11 top-class film festivals worldwide.[21]
The Egyptian film industry is the largest & most developed within Arabic-speaking cinema.[20]
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 Turkish-Egyptian Dance Troupe Al Rakasaat's "Alexandria" Choreographed by Karen Custer Thurston |
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous Egyptian and Western influences.
As early as4000 BC, ancient Egyptians were playingharps andflutes, as well as two indigenous instruments: theney and theoud. However, there is a little notation of Egyptian music before the 7th century AD, when Egypt became part of theMuslim world.Percussion and vocal music became important at this time and has remained an important part of Egyptian music today.[citation needed]
ContemporaryEgyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz, Sayed Mikkawi, and Mahmud Osman, who were all patronized byKhedive Ismail and who influenced the later work ofSayed Darwish,Umm Kulthum,Mohammed Abdel Wahab,Abdel Halim Hafez and other Egyptian musicians.[citation needed]
From the 1970s onwards, Egyptianpop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, particularly among the large youth population of Egypt. Egyptianfolk music is also popular, played during weddings and other festivities. In the last quarter of the 20th century, Egyptian music was a way to communicatesocial andclass issues. The most popular Egyptian pop singers areAmr Diab,Tamer Hosny,Mohamed Mounir,Angham andAli El Haggar.Electronic music composers,Halim El-Dabh, is an Egyptian.[22]
Belly dance, orRaqs Sharqi (literally: oriental dancing) may have originated in Egypt.[23]
The Arabic musical discipline known as "maqam," or chanting has both secular and religious uses. Maqams are almost always sung by men in the region, where women who perform music or sing publicly are often viewed as promiscuous. The members of Alhour, Egypt's first all-female Muslim recitation choir, are challenging deep-rooted taboos about women singing in public or reciting from the Quran in the socially conservative country. Alhour choir was launched in 2017.[24]
Thehijab became more unpopular with educated women, including devout Muslims, in the early 20th century as the British authorities discouraged it and as women sought to gain modern positions of power. The hijab became more popular in the 1970s, with women choosing to adopt it due to the surge of pan-Arabism (especially its islamically rooted side) and Wahabbism as a result of the returning Egyptian migrants from Gulf Arab countries who got influenced by their beliefs & cultural set during their stay there.[25]
In 2012, Misr International Films was producing a television series based on the novelZaat bySonallah Ibrahim. Filming of scenes set atAin Shams University was scheduled to occur that year. However,Muslim Brotherhood student members and some teachers at the school protested, stating that the 1970s era clothing worn by the actresses was indecent and would not allow filming unless the clothing was changed. Gaby Khoury, the head of the film company, stated that the engineering department head, Sherif Hammad, "insisted that the filming should stop and that we would be reimbursed ... explaining that he was not able to guarantee the protection of the materials or the artists."[26]
Egyptian cuisine consists of local culinary traditions such asFul medames,Falafel,Kushari, andMolokhia. It also shares similarities with food found throughout the eastern Mediterranean likeKebab andShawarma.
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