Theculture of Cornwall forms part of theculture of the United Kingdom, but has distinct customs, traditions and peculiarities.Cornwall has many strong local traditions. After many years of decline, Cornish culture has undergone a strong revival, and many groups exist to promote Cornwall's culture and language today.
The Cornish language is aCeltic language closely related toBreton and slightly less so toWelsh and the now extinctCumbric. All of these are directly descended from theBrythonic language formerly spoken throughout most of Britain. The language went into decline following the introduction of the EnglishBook of Common Prayer (in 1549) and by the turn of the 19th century had ceased to be used as a community language (see main article for further discussion).
During the 19th century researchers began to study the language from any remaining isolated speakers and in 1904Henry Jenner publishedA Handbook in the Cornish Language which started the revival proper. Although less than 1% of Cornwall's population speak the language and 'mother tongue' speakers are in their hundreds rather than thousands, the language continues to play a significant part in the culture of Cornwall.
Some events will use Cornish, in short phrases, openings, greetings or names. There is a healthy tradition ofmusic in the language, which can also be enjoyed by non-speakers. The vast majority of place names in Cornwall are derived from the language, and many people who live in Cornwall know a few words or phrases, e.g. 'Kernow bys vykken!' ('Cornwall forever!). Many Cornish houses, businesses, children, pets and boats[1] are named in the language, thus it has use as an "official community language" and any Cornish speaker will often be asked to provide translations. The language is also used in official business, with the home ofCornwall Council being renamed from New County Hall toLys Kernow and several of the region's MPs using the language in theHouses of Parliament. These includeAndrew George,Dan Rogerson,Sarah Newton andScott Mann, who have all used the language, at various times, to swear theiroaths of allegiance to the Queen.
The ancientBrittonic country shares much of its cultural history with neighbouringDevon andSomerset in England andWales andBrittany further afield. Historic records of authentic Cornish mythology or history are hard to verify but early examples of theCornish language such as theBodmin manumissions mark the separation ofPrimitive Cornish fromOld Welsh which is often dated to theBattle of Deorham in 577.[2]
Due to language erosion and possible suppression caused by the dominant English language[citation needed] and culture in the later medieval period, many works of Cornish language are thought to have been lost, particularly at the time of thedissolution of the religious houses ofGlasney College andCrantock College,[citation needed] which were regarded as repertories[clarification needed] of 'Welsh' (i.e., foreign) conservatism by the English. Cornish grievances against the policies of the English government led to the unsuccessful uprisings of theCornish Rebellion of 1497 and thePrayer Book Rebellion of 1549.
However, significant portions of the 'Matter of Britain' relate to the people of Cornwall and Brittany as they do to the modern 'Welsh'--this extends fromGeoffrey of Monmouth to theMabinogion and theBreton-derived tales ofKing Arthur which make frequent and explicit reference to the geography of the early Brythonic nation, such as his capital at 'Kelliwic inCerniw' and the legendary sea fortress of KingMergh atTintagel.
By the Shakespearean period, these ancient texts still maintained a currency demonstrated byKing Lear based on the ancient tale ofLeir of Britain which namesCorineus the eponymous founder of the Cornish nation; he traditionally wrestled the giantGoemagot into the sea atPlymouth Hoe and claimed the land beyond for his people; the probable origin of the tale ofJack the Giant Killer.[citation needed][3]
The earliest Cornish literature is in the Cornish language and Cornwall produced a substantial number ofpassion plays during the Middle Ages. Many are still extant, and provide valuable information about the language: they were performed in round 'plen a gwary' (place for playing) open-air theatres.[clarification needed]
There is much traditionalfolklore in Cornwall, often tales of giants, mermaids,piskies or the 'pobel vean' (little people). These are still surprisingly popular today, with many events hosting a 'droll teller' to tell the stories: such myths and stories have found much publishing success, particularly in children's books.[clarification needed]
The fairy taleJack the Giant Killer takes place in Cornwall.[4]
Writing in theCornish dialect existed from the 19th century; in the 20th century the revival of interest in the Cornish language led eventually to a few of those who had mastered the latter turning to writing in it. Poems, essays and short stories have also been published in newspapers and magazines e.g.The Cornish & Devon Post.[citation needed][5] Then there are literary works in standard English including conversations between dialect speakers,[citation needed] often with a typically Cornish humour.[citation needed][6]
Cornish World, a colour magazine produced in Cornwall and covering all aspects of Cornish life, has proved popular with the descendants of Cornish emigrants as well as Cornish residents. It includes a column in the Cornish language.
Charles Causley was born inLaunceston and is perhaps the best known of Cornish poets.
The Nobel-prizewinning novelistWilliam Golding was born inSt Columb Minor in 1911, and returned to live nearTruro from 1985 until his death in 1993.[7]
Other notable Cornish writers includeArthur Quiller-Couch, alias "Q", novelist and literary critic;Jack Clemo, deaf-blind poet;Ronald Bottrall, modernist poet;Robert Stephen Hawker, eccentric Victorian poet and priest;Geoffrey Grigson, poet and critic;Silas Hocking, prolific novelist; andD. M. Thomas, novelist and poet.
The latePoet LaureateSir John Betjeman was famously fond of Cornwall and it featured prominently in his poetry. He is buried in the churchyard atSt Enodoc's Church, Trebetherick.[8]
The poetLaurence Binyon wrote "For the Fallen" (first published in 1914) while sitting on the cliffs between Pentire Point and The Rumps and a stone plaque was erected in 2001 to commemorate the fact. The plaque bears the inscription 'For The Fallen Composed on these cliffs 1914'. The plaque also bears the fourth stanza (sometimes referred to as 'The Ode') of the poem.
The English-born poetSylvia Kantaris returned to the UK in 1971 and settled inHelston in 1974. She was appointed as Cornwall's first Writer in the Community in 1986.[9]
Novels or parts of novels set in Cornwall include:
Daphne du Maurier lived in Bodinnick-by-Fowey, Cornwall and many of her novels had Cornish settings, includingRebecca,Jamaica Inn,Frenchman's Creek,My Cousin Rachel, andThe House on the Strand.[10] She is also noted for writingVanishing Cornwall. Cornwall provided the inspiration for "The Birds", one of her terrifying series of short stories, made famous as a film byAlfred Hitchcock.[11]
Conan Doyle'sThe Adventure of the Devil's Foot featuringSherlock Holmes is set in Cornwall.[12]
Howard Spring lived in Cornwall from 1939 and set part or all of various novels in the county.
Medieval Cornwall is also the setting of the trilogy byMonica FurlongWise Child,Juniper, andColman, as well as part of Charles Kingsley'sHereward the Wake.
Winston Graham's seriesPoldark (and the television series derived from it),Kate Tremayne'sAdam Loveday series, andGreenwitch, andMary Wesley'sThe Camomile Lawn are all set in Cornwall. Writing under the pseudonym of Alexander Kent,Douglas Reeman sets parts of hisRichard Bolitho and Adam Bolitho series in the Cornwall of the late 18th and the early 19th centuries, particularly inFalmouth.
Hammond Innes's novelThe Killer Mine[13] also has a Cornish setting.
Charles de Lint, writer of many modern and urbanfairy tales, set his novelThe Little Country in the village ofMousehole in Cornwall.[14]
Chapters 24 and 25 ofJ. K. Rowling'sHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows take place in Cornwall (the Harry Potter story at Shell Cottage, which is on the beach outside the fictional village of Tinworth in Cornwall).[15]
Over Sea, Under Stone andGreenwitch from the series of fantasy novelsThe Dark Is Rising, bySusan Cooper, are set in Cornwall.[16] Ciji Ware* set her 1997 novelA Cottage by the Sea on the Cornish coast.[17][18]Sue Limb'sGirl, (Nearly) 16: Absolute Torture is partly set in St Ives on the Cornish coast.[19]
Cornwall is featured heavily in the beginning ofThe Mists of Avalon byMarion Zimmer Bradley as the home of Igraine, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. Thecastle at Tintagel has been said to be where King Arthur was conceived (when Uther Pendragon entered the castle in the form of Gorlois).
Agatha Christie's "Poirot" short story "The Cornish Adventure" take place in Polgarwith, an (imaginary) small market town in Cornwall.[20]
In thePaddington Bear novels byMichael Bond the title character is said to have landed at an unspecified port in Cornwall having travelled in alifeboat aboard acargo ship from darkestPeru. From here he travels toLondon on a train and eventually arrives atPaddington Station.[21]
Cornwall produced a substantial number ofpassion plays such as theOrdinalia during the Middle Ages. Many are still extant, and provide valuable information about the Cornish language.[citation needed] Other notable plays includeBeunans Meriasek andBeunans Ke, the only two surviving plays written in any of Britain's vernacular tongues that take a saint's life as their subject.[22]Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch author of many novels and works of literary criticism lived in Fowey: his novels are mainly set in Cornwall. Prolific writerColin Wilson, best known for his debut workThe Outsider (1956) and forThe Mind Parasites (1967), lived inGorran Haven, a village on the southern Cornish coast, not far fromMevagissey.A. L. Rowse, the historian and poet, was born near St Austell.[23]
Thomas Hardy's dramaThe Queen of Cornwall (1923) is a version of the Tristan story; the second act ofRichard Wagner's operaTristan und Isolde takes place in Cornwall, as doGilbert and Sullivan's operettasThe Pirates of Penzance andRuddigore. A level ofTomb Raider: Legend, a videogame dealing with Arthurian legend, takes place in Cornwall at a tacky museum above King Arthur's tomb.
The theatre companyKneehigh Theatre is active in Cornwall. Amateur theatre groups exist in many villages, and the open airMinack Theatre is well known.
The fairy tale "Jack the Giant Killer" takes place in Cornwall.
See alsoList of Cornish saints
Celtic Christianity was a feature of Cornwall and manyCornish Saints are commemorated in legends, churches and placenames.
Traditionally, the Cornish have been non-conformists in religion. In 1549, thePrayer Book Rebellion caused the deaths of thousands of people from Devon and Cornwall. TheMethodism ofJohn Wesley also proved to be very popular with the working classes in Cornwall in the 18th century.[clarification needed] Methodist chapels became important social centres, with male voice choirs and other church-affiliated groups playing a central role in the social lives of working-class Cornishmen. Methodism still plays a large part in the religious life of Cornwall today, although Cornwall has shared in the post-World War II decline in British religious feeling.[clarification needed]
In contrast tothe situation in Wales, the churches failed to produce a translation of the Bible into the local language, and this has been seen by some as a crucial factor in the demise of the language.[by whom?]The Bible was translated into Cornish in 2002.
Renewed interest in Celtic Christianity
In the late 20th century and early 21st century there has been a renewed interest in the older forms of Christianity in Cornwall.Cowethas Peran Sans, the Fellowship of St Piran, is one such group promotingCeltic Christianity.[24] The group was founded by Andrew Phillips and membership is open to baptised Christians in good standing in their local community who support the aims of the group.
The aims of the group are these:
Fry an Spyrys
In 2003, a campaign group was formed calledFry an Spyrys ('free the spirit' in Cornish).[25] It is dedicated to disestablishing theChurch of England in Cornwall and to forming an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion – a Church of Cornwall. Its chairman is DrGarry Tregidga of theInstitute of Cornish Studies. The Anglican Church was disestablished in Wales to form theChurch in Wales in 1920 and in Ireland to form theChurch of Ireland in 1869.
Saint Piran's Flag (Cornish:Baner Peran), a white cross on a black background is often seen inCornwall. TheDuchy of Cornwall shield of 15 goldbezants on a black field is also used. Because of these two symbols black, white and gold are considered colours symbolic ofCornwall.
Thechough (Cornish:palores) is also used as a symbol of Cornwall. In Cornish poetry the chough is used to symbolise the spirit of Cornwall.[clarification needed] Also there is a Cornish belief thatKing Arthur lives in the form of a chough. "Chough" was also used as a nickname for Cornish people.[clarification needed]
Another animal with a deep association with Cornwall is the "White Horse of Lyonesse". Arthurian legends tell of a rider escaping on a white horse as the land sunk beneath the waves, surviving and settling in Cornwall.
An anvil is sometimes used to symboliseCornish nationalism, particularly in its more extreme forms.[clarification needed] This is a reference to 'Michael An Gof', 'the smith', one of two leaders of theCornish Rebellion of 1497.
Fish, tin and copper together are used symbolically as they show the 'traditional' three main industries of Cornwall. Tin has a special place in the Cornish culture, the 'Stannary Parliament' and 'Cornish pennies' are a testament to the former power of theCornish tin industry. Cornish tin is highly prized for jewellery, often of mine engines orCeltic designs.[clarification needed]
Although Cornwall has no official flower many people favour theCornish heath (Erica vagans). In recent yearsdaffodils have been popular on the annualSaint Piran's day march on Perran Sands although they are donated by a local daffodil grower and it is already considered to be the national flower ofWales.
TheInstitute of Cornish Studies, established in 1970, moved to the newCombined Universities in Cornwall Campus atTremough,Penryn in October 2004: the institute is a branch of theUniversity of Exeter. A detailed overview of literature is provided byAlan M. Kent'sThe Literature of Cornwall: it covers everything from medieval mystery plays to more recent literary works that draw on the Cornish landscape.
The historianPhilip Payton, professor at Exeter University's department of Cornish studies, has writtenCornwall: a History as well as editing the Cornish studies series.Mark Stoyle, Senior Lecturer in Early Modern History at theUniversity of Southampton, asks 'Are the Cornish English?’ in his bookWest Britons, a work on Cornish history exploring the nature of Cornishness in the early modern period.John Angarrack of the human rights organisationCornwall 2000 has self-published two books to date,Breaking the Chains andOur Future is History: both are polemical re-examinations of Cornish history and identity, not historical works.
TheFederation of Old Cornwall Societies is a group of societies of those interested in Cornwall's past which has published a number of books. The London Cornish Association is a society based in London for people interested in Cornwall. Its publications includeThe Cornish Handbook; by John Kinsman; foreword on Cornish characteristics by Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch. Cheltenham: Ed. J. Burrow & Co., 1921 "the official handbook of the London Cornish Association"
So-called 'Celtic art' is found in Cornwall reflecting its ancientBrythonic heritage, often in the form ofCeltic crosses erected from the 6th century onwards. TheTrewhiddle style is aninsular style of black and whiteniello metalwork named after an important Cornish find from the 9th century. Many place-names are formed with the elementLan of sacred enclosures of earlyCornish saints from Wales, Ireland and Brittany. The activities of these saints resulted in a shared cultural inheritance which particularly includes the post-Roman corpus of literature relating toKing Arthur andTristan and Iseult, presumed nobility of ancientDumnonia.[clarification needed] Cornwall boasts the highest density of traditional 'Celtic crosses' of any nation, and medievalholy wells are numerous.[clarification needed] The destruction of monastic institutions such asGlasney College andCrantock during thedissolution of the monasteries (1536–45) is often regarded as the death knell of independence in Cornish language and culture; the very few remaining Cornish language manuscripts, including themiracle playsBeunans Ke andBeunans Meriasek are thought to have originated at these ancient centres of academic excellence, some areas however retain their outdoor performance spaces, known asplen an gwary. After the First World War, many new crosses were erected aswar memorials and to celebrate events, e.g. the beginning of thethird millennium.
Cornwall and its dramatic landscape and distinctive remoteness have produced and inspired many later artists.[26]John Opie was the first Cornish-born artist of note andJ. M. W. Turner visited in 1811. A number of London artists settled in theNewlyn area in the 1880s, following the building of the Great Western Railway, who went on to form theNewlyn School.
Sickert and Whistler both visited St Ives at the end of the 19th century, and the internationally famous studio potter, Bernard Leach set up his pottery in the town in 1920St. Ives. In 1928Ben Nicholson andChristopher Wood visited the town and metAlfred Wallis the naive painter, native to St Ives, who was to become an important influence on a generation of British artists: particularly those who were members of theSeven and Five Society.
At the outbreak of World War II Nicholson came to live in St Ives with his wifeBarbara Hepworth, staying initially with the philosopher and writerAdrian Stokes and his wifeMargaret Mellis.Naum Gabo also joined them there as well as artists who at the time were at an earlier stage in their careers:John Wells,Wilhelmina Barns-Graham,Terry Frost andBryan Wynter. Other artists of international repute joined the colony later: notablyPatrick Heron,Roger Hilton andSandra Blow.
There are still a lot of artists in Cornwall, many associated with theNewlyn Society of Artists. Artist led projects like PALP and artsurgery have also been important in the 21st century.
Cornish vernacular architecture is characterised by its use of abundant natural stone, especiallyCornubian granite,slate, and local whitelime-washing and its plain unadorned simplicity, sharing cultural and stylistic similarities, with the architecture of AtlanticBrittany, Ireland andWales, as well as neighbouringDevon. The architecture of west Cornish towns such asSt Ives is particularly distinctive for its use of solid granite and featuring also the type of earlypromontoryhermitage particularly associated withCeltic Christianity.
Early and continuous use of stone architecture over more than two thousand years, begins with the Romano-British enclosed courtyard houses atCarn Euny andChysauster is regionally distinct from the largely rectangular timber-derived architecture ofSaxon England and often features characteristically rounded or circular forms[27] – such as theringforts,roundhouses and enclosed settlements known locally as "rounds" – the influence of which can be detected up to the building ofLaunceston Castle andRestormel Castle in the later medieval.
The medievallonghouse was the typical form of housing in early Cornish 'Tre' dispersed settlements of small hamlets of farmsteads and associated field systems apparently originating from before the time of the Norman conquest.[28][29] Thelonghouse form is notable for its combined accommodation of humans and precious livestock under a single roof in a form found distributed across northwestern Atlantic Europe; France (Longère)Brittany (Ty Hir),Normandy, Devon and SouthWales (Ty Hir) .
Ecclesiastical architecture of Cornwall and Devon typically differs from that of the rest of southern England: most medieval churches in the larger parishes were rebuilt in the later medieval period with one or two aisles and a western tower, the aisles being the same width as the nave and the piers of the arcades being of one of a few standard types; the former monastery church atSt Germans demonstrates these features over several periods as the former seat of the bishop of Cornwall. Wagon roofs often survive in these churches. The typical tower is of three stages, often with buttresses set back from the angles.[30]
Churches of the Decorated period are relatively rare, as are those with spires. There are very few churches from the 17th and 18th centuries. There is a distinctive type of Norman font in many Cornish churches which is sometimes called the Altarnun type. The style of carving in benchends is also recognisably Cornish.[31]
Cornwall has a rich and vibrant folk music tradition which has survived into the present.
Cornish players are regular participants in inter-Celtic festivals, and Cornwall itself has several lively inter-Celtic festivals such asPerranporth's folk festival, Lowender Peran.[32]
CornishCeltic music is a relatively large phenomenon given the size of the region. A recent tally found over 100 bands playing mostly or entirely Cornish folk music. Traditional dancing (Cornish dance) is associated with the music. These dance events are eitherTroyls (a dance night more similar to aceilidh) orNozow looan (a dance night more similar to aBretonFest Noz).
Aphex Twin is a Cornish-based electronic music artist, though he was born ofWelsh parents in Ireland. Many other pop musicians are based in Cornwall but many of them originate elsewhere.
Lanner and District Silver Band is a CornishBrass band based inLanner, Cornwall, United Kingdom, and well known for its concerts. There are many other brass and silver bands in Cornwall, particularly in the former mining areas:Camborne Town Band is a notable example.
Recently some bands, such as Hanterhir,[33] have fused classical Cornish folk music with other genres likerock music.
There is a long tradition of processional dance and music in Cornwall. The best known tradition is theHelston Furry. The term 'furry' is used generally to describe such a dance or associated tune. These bands have been referred to as 'crowders and horners' and generally have a motley mix of instruments with folk instruments such as the fiddle, bagpipe orcrowdy crawn mixed up with brass, reed and anything that can be carried.
Padstow'Obby 'Oss festival takes place on 1 May, the feast ofBeltane to Celtic people.
Golowan festival inPenzance, which was revived in 1991, was part of a much wider tradition of midsummer festivals where bonfires were lit on hilltops on Midsummer's Eve. The tradition of midsummer bonfires continues, albeit to a lesser extent than when fires could be seen on every hilltop, throughout Cornwall.
Lowender Perran is held at the end of October inPerranporth. This is a gathering of musicians and dancers from the sixCeltic nations.
Historically Cornwall has had close links withBrittany and this is reflected in the music. The Cornish andBreton languages were mutually intelligible until Tudor times[citation needed] and there were many Bretons living in Cornwall before thePrayer Book Rebellion. Myths, saints, dances and tunes are often shared withBrittany. It has been noted thatThe Kroaz Du (Black Cross) flag used in medieval Brittany is the exact inverse of theCornish flag, whether there is a reason for this is unknown. Breton flags are popular in Cornwall and are often seen alongside the Cornish flag on car bumpers and at musical events. This link continues today with Cornish-Breton festivals such as 'AberFest' inFalmouth (Aberfal) and the twinning of Cornish and Breton towns.
TheGorseth Kernow (or gorsedh), which was set up in 1928, is similar to the WelshGorsedd, and indeed was formed by theWelsh Gorsedd at the request ofHenry Jenner. The Cornish Gorseth promotes the arts and theCornish language through competitions at the open gorseth.[34]
Cornwall has a small but growing film industry, mostly focusing on the Cornish language and culture. Numerous films, short and long, have been made in Cornwall. The Cornish film industry is supported by organisations such asWar-rag (War-rag meaning "ahead" in Cornish).[citation needed]
TheCeltic Film and Television Festival includes entries from Cornish film makers, and was held inFalmouth in 2006. The Goel Fylm Kernow/Cornwall Film Festival is held once a year, and supports Cornish film making, including films made in the Cornish or English language.[35][36]
Goel Fylm Kernow also hosts workshops, screenings and the "Govynn Kernewek" competition. In this competition applicants can present their ideas for films to be made in the Cornish language. The prizes in the competition consist of financial, material and technical support for making the film. Films made following this award includeKernow's Kick Ass Kung-Fu Kweens (2004), akung fu film in Cornish.[37]
The only known feature-length film in the Cornish language isHwerow Hweg (Bitter Sweet), which was filmed alongside an English version.[38][39] It was premiered at the 2002 Cornwall Film Festival and entered for the 2003 Celtic Film Festival.[40] There are a number of short films which have been made in the language.[41][42]
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Cornwall is famous for itspasties (a type of pie often containing meat), butsaffron buns,Cornish Heavy (Hevva) Cake,Cornish fairings (biscuit), Cornishfudge and Cornishice cream are also common.
Cornishclotted cream is a popular topping on splits and on scones. Opinion varies as to whether or not the cream should be spread on before or after the jam.[clarification needed] Clotted cream is often served asthunder and lightning (with syrup on bread.)
There are also many types of beers brewed in Cornwall including astout, and there is some small scale production ofcider and wine.
Cornish wrestling originated in Cornwall, but spread throughout Britain in the Middle Ages and then to other countries, especially Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the US.
Euchre is acard game played in Cornwall. It is normally a game for four players consisting of two teams. Its origins are unclear, but some claim it is a Cornish game, and was popularised in part by Cornish immigrants to the United States. There are several leagues in Cornwall at present. Whist and pub quizzes are also popular in many villages.[citation needed]
The "traditional dress" of Cornwall for women is abal maiden's or fishwife's costume. This includes the wearing of a bonnet known as a "gook" (which were peculiar to a district or community,) aprons and woollenshawls.
For menfishermen's smocks,Guernsey sweaters (known as worsted-frocks in Cornwall) and long cut shirts are worn.[43]
The adoption of the Cornish kilt has recently become popular, and these kilts are available in variousCornish tartans or plain black. The first reference to a "Cornish" kilt is from 1903 when the Cornish delegate to the Celtic Congress, convening atCaernarfon,L. C. R. Duncombe-Jewell, appeared in awoad blue kilt, to impress upon the delegates the Celtic character of Cornwall. Black kilts are proposed by some as the traditional version of the garment, some claiming that theDuke of Cornwall's Light Infantry wore black kilts on occasions in the 19th century[44] (this may have been similar to the Irish saffron kilt). The most common kilt used in Cornwall is pleated Scottish-style with a leather,Duchy of Cornwall shield-style, sporran.
TheCornish national tartan was designed by E. E Morton Nance in 1963 using colours traditionally associated with Cornwall. Fragments of tartan have been found inPenwith.[citation needed]
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