Theculture of Canada embodies theartistic,culinary,literary,humour,musical,political and social elements that are representative of Canadians. Throughout Canada's history, its culture has been influenced firstly by itsindigenous cultures, and later byEuropean culture and traditions, mostly by theBritish andFrench.^[1] Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada's immigrant populations have become incorporated to form a Canadiancultural mosaic.^[1][2] Certain segments of Canada's population have, to varying extents, also been influenced byAmerican culture due to shared language (in English-speaking Canada), significantmedia penetration, and geographic proximity.^[3][4]

Canada is often characterized as being "veryprogressive,diverse, andmulticultural".^[5] Canada'sfederal government has often been described as the instigator ofmulticultural ideology because of its public emphasis on thesocial importance of immigration.^[6] Canada's culture draws from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote ajust society are constitutionally protected.^[7] Canadian policies—such asabortion,euthanasia,same-sex marriage, andcannabis; an emphasis oncultural diversity;significant immigration; abolishingcapital punishment;publicly funded health care; higher and moreprogressive taxation; efforts to eliminatepoverty; and strictgun control are social indicators of the country'spolitical andcultural values.^[8][9][10] Canadians view the country's institutions of health care,military peacekeeping, thenational park system, and theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms as integral to their nationalidentity.^[11][12]

The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has createdcrown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media, such as theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and theNational Film Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it considers to promote Canadian traditions. It has also tried toprotect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums onCanadian content in many media using bodies like theCanadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).^[13]

For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited byindigenous peoples from a variety ofdifferent cultures and ofseveral major linguistic groupings.^[14] Although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions withFirst Nations andInuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful.^[15] First Nations andMétis peoples played a critical part in the development ofEuropean colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting Europeancoureur des bois andvoyageurs in the exploration of the continent during theNorth American fur trade.^[16] Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an everyday part ofCanadian language and use.^[17]Many places in Canada, both natural features and human habitations, use indigenous names. Thename "Canada" itself derives from theSt. Lawrence Huron-Iroquoian word "Kanata" meaning "village" or "settlement".^[18] The name of Canada's capital cityOttawa comes from theAlgonquin language term "adawe" meaning "to trade".^[18]

In the 17th-century, French colonials settledNew France inAcadia, in the present-dayMaritimes, and inCanada, along theSt. Lawrence River in present-dayQuebec andOntario.^[19] These regions were underFrench control from 1534 to 1763. However, theBritishconquered Acadia in 1710 andconqueredCanada in 1760. The British were able todeport most of the Acadians, but they were unable to deport theCanadiens ofCanada because they severely outnumbered the British forces. The British therefore had tomake deals with Canadiens andhope they would one day become assimilated.^[20] TheAmerican Revolution, from 1775 to 1783, provoked the migration of 40,000 to 50,000United Empire Loyalists from theThirteen Colonies to the newly conquered British lands, which brought American influences to Canada for the first time.^[20] Following theWar of 1812, manyScottish andEnglish people settled inUpper Canada andLower Canada. ManyIrish people fleeing theGreat Famine also arrived between 1845 and 1852.^[20]

TheCanadian Forces and overall civilian participation in theFirst World War andSecond World War helped to fosterCanadian nationalism;^[21] however, in 1917 and 1944,conscription crises highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.^[22] As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority.^[23] Canada, until the 1940s, was often described as "binational", with the 2 components being the cultural, linguistic and political identities ofEnglish Canadians and ofFrench Canadians.^[24]

Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as theContinuous journey regulation andChinese Immigration Act) that had favoured British, American and other European immigrants (such asDutch,German,Italian,Polish,Swedish andUkrainian) were amended during the 1960s,^[25][26] resulting in an influx of people of many different ethnicities.^[27] By the end of the 20th century, immigrants were increasinglyChinese,Indian,Vietnamese,Jamaican,Filipino,Lebanese,Pakistani andHaitian.^[28] By the 21st century Canada hadthirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller numbers.^[29] As of 2006^[update], 16.2% of the population self-identify as avisible minority.^[29]

Themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian culture.^[30] Modern Canadian culture as it is understood today can be traced to its timeperiod of westward expansion and nation building.^[31] Contributing factors include Canada's unique geography, climate, and cultural makeup. Being a cold country with long winter nights for most of the year, certain unique leisure activities developed in Canada during this period includingice hockey and embracement of the summer indigenous game oflacrosse.^[32][33][34]

By the 19th century,Canadians came to believe themselves possessed of a unique "northern character," due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body and mind could survive.^[35] This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and sports that reflected this, such assnowshoeing andcross-country skiing, were asserted as characteristically Canadian.^[36] During this period, the churches tried to influence leisure activities by preaching against drinking, and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities.^[37] In a society in which most middle-class families now owned a harmonium or piano, and standard education included at least the rudiments of music, the result was often an original song.^[38] Such stirrings frequently occurred in response to noteworthy events, and few local or national excitements were allowed to pass without some musical comment.^[39][40]

By the 1930s, radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional teams. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage and the propagation ofnational myths.^[41] Outside the sports and music arena, Canadians expressed a national character of being hard working, peaceful, orderly and polite.^[42]

French Canada's early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th centuries, and this was preserved by theQuebec Act 1774, which allowed Roman Catholics to hold offices and practice their faith.^[43] TheConstitution Act, 1867 was thought to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to theCivil War in the United States.^[44] The compromises reached during this time between the English- and French-speakingFathers of Confederation set Canada on a path tobilingualism which in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity.^[45] The English and French languages have had limited constitutional protection since 1867 and full official status since 1969.^[46] Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867 (BNA Act) guarantees that both languages may be used in theParliament of Canada.^[46] Canada adopted itsfirst Official Languages Act in 1969, giving English and French equal status in the government of Canada.^[47] Doing so makes them "official" languages, having preferred status in law over all otherlanguages used in Canada.^[47]

Prior to the advent of theCanadian Bill of Rights in 1960 and its successor theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, the laws of Canada did not provide much in the way ofcivil rights and this issue was typically of limited concern to the courts.^[48] Canada since the 1960s has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people.^[49]Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government and is enshrined inSection 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[50][51] In 1995, theSupreme Court of Canada ruled inEgan v. Canada thatsexual orientation should be "read in" toSection Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a part of theConstitution of Canada guaranteeingequal rights to all Canadians.^[52] Following a series of decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20, 2005, theCivil Marriage Act (Bill C-38) became law, legalizingsame-sex marriage in Canada.^[53] Furthermore, sexual orientation was included as a protected status in the human-rights laws of the federal government and of all provinces and territories.^[54]

Canadian governments at the federal level have a tradition ofliberalism,^[55] and govern with amoderate,centrist political ideology.^[56][57] Canada'segalitarian approach to governance emphasizingsocial justice and multiculturalism, is based on selectiveimmigration,social integration, andsuppression offar-right politics that has wide public and political support.^[58][59]Peace, order, and good government are constitutional goals of the Canadian government.^[60]

Canada has amulti-party system in which many of its legislative customs derive from the unwrittenconventions of and precedents set by theWestminster parliament of the United Kingdom. The country has been dominated by two parties,^[61] thecentre-leftLiberal Party of Canada and thecentre-rightConservative Party of Canada.^[62] The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale,^[63] with the Conservatives sitting on the right and theNew Democratic Party occupying theleft.^[61] Smaller parties like theQuebec nationalistBloc Québécois and theGreen Party of Canada have also been able to exert their influence over the political process by representation at the federal level.

In general, Canadian nationalists are concerned about the protection of Canadian sovereignty and loyalty to theCanadian State, placing them in thecivic nationalist category. It has likewise often been suggested thatanti-Americanism plays a prominent role in Canadian nationalist ideologies.^[64] A unified, bi-cultural, tolerant and sovereign Canada remains an ideological inspiration to many Canadian nationalists.^[65] AlternativelyQuebecois nationalism and support for maintainingFrench Canadian culture many of whom were supporters of theQuebec sovereignty movement during the late-20th century.^[66]

Cultural protectionism in Canada has, since the mid-20th century, taken the form of conscious, interventionist attempts on the part of various Canadian governments to promote Canadian cultural production.^[67] Sharing alarge border, a common language (for the majority), and being exposed to massive diffusions of Americanmedia makes it difficult for Canada to preserve its own culture versus being assimilated toAmerican culture. While Canada tries to maintain its cultural differences, it also must balance this with responsibility in trade arrangements such as theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and theUnited States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).^[68]

The notion ofpeacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from itsclosest ally, the United States.^[69][70][71]Canada's foreign policy of peacekeeping,peace enforcement,peacemaking, andpeacebuilding has been intertwined with its tendency to pursuemultilateral andinternational solutions since the end ofWorld War II.^{[72][73][74][75]}

Canada's central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid-1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the "common good" of all nations.^[76] Canada has since been engaged with theUnited Nations,NATO and theEuropean Union (EU) in promoting itsmiddle power status into an active role in world affairs.^[77]

Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,^[78][79] such as theVietnam War or the2003 Invasion of Iraq.^[78][79] Canada has participated in US-led, UN-sanctioned operations such as thefirst Gulf War, inAfghanistan andLibya.^[78][79] The country also participates with its NATO allies in UN-sanctioned missions, such as theKosovo Conflict and inHaiti.^[78][79]

Canadian values are the perceived commonly shared ethical and human values of Canadians. Canadians generally value freedom and individuality, often making personal decisions based on family interests rather than collectiveCanadian identity.^[80] Tolerance and sensitivity hold significant importance inCanada's multicultural society, as does politeness and fairness^[80] Canadians typically tend to embrace liberal views on social and political issues.^[80] A majority of Canadians shared the values ofhuman rights, respect for the law and gender equality.^[81] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."^[82]

Themajor political parties have claimed explicitly that they uphold Canadian values, but use generalities to specify them. HistorianIan MacKay argues that, thanks to the long-term political impact of "Rebels,Reds, andRadicals", and allied leftist political elements, "egalitarianism, social equality, and peace... are now often simply referred to...as 'Canadian values.'"^[83]

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was intended to be a source for Canadian values and national unity.^[84] The 15th Prime MinisterPierre Trudeau wrote in hisMemoirs that:

Canada itself could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.^[85]

Numerous scholars, beginning in the 1940s with American sociologistSeymour Martin Lipset; have tried to identify, measure and compare them with other countries, especially the United States.^[86][87] However, there are critics who say that such a task is practically impossible.^[88]

Denis Stairs a professor of political Science atDalhousie University; links the concept of Canadian values withnationalism. [Canadians typically]...believe, in particular, that they subscribe to a distinctive set of values –Canadian values – and that those values are special in the sense of being unusually virtuous.^[89]

Canada's large geographic size, the presence of a significant number of indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic population by another and relatively openimmigration policy have led to an extremelydiverse society. As a result, the issue of Canadian identity remains under scrutiny.^[90]

Canada has constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather thancultural assimilation or a single national myth.^[91] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many commentators speak of aFrench Canadian culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture.^[92] However, as a whole, Canada is in theory, acultural mosaic—a collection of several regional, and ethnic subcultures.^[93][94]

As ProfessorAlan Cairns noted about the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, "the initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity"'.^[95] Pierre Trudeau himself later wrote in hisMemoirs (1993) that "Canada itself" could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.^[96]

Political philosopher Charles Blattberg suggests that Canada is a "multinational country"; as all Canadians are members of Canada as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, and this is a community that contains many other kinds within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, and civic (the provincial and municipal governments) sorts, but also national communities, which often include or overlap with many of the other kinds.^[97]

Journalist and authorRichard Gwyn has suggested that "tolerance" has replaced "loyalty" as the touchstone of Canadian identity.^[98] Journalist and professorAndrew Cohen wrote in 2007:

The Canadian Identity, as it has come to be known, is as elusive as theSasquatch andOgopogo. It has animated—and frustrated—generations of statesmen, historians, writers, artists, philosophers, and the National Film Board ... Canada resists easy definition.^[99]

Canada's 15th prime ministerPierre Trudeau in regards to uniformity stated:

Uniformity is neither desirable nor possible in a country the size of Canada. We should not even be able to agree upon the kind of Canadian to choose as a model, let alone persuade most people to emulate it. There are few policies potentially more disastrous for Canada than to tell all Canadians that they must be alike. There is no such thing as a model or ideal Canadian. What could be more absurd than the concept of an "all-Canadian" boy or girl? A society which emphasizes uniformity is one which creates intolerance and hate.^[100]

In 2015, Prime MinisterJustin Trudeau defined the country as the world's firstpostnational state: "There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada".^[101]

The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three fundamental themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English Canadians and French Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative for cultural and linguistic survival; secondly, the generally close ties between English Canadians and theBritish Empire, resulting in a gradual political process towards complete independence from the imperial power; and finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the United States.^[102] Much of the debate over contemporary Canadian identity is argued in political terms, and defines Canada as a country defined by its government policies, which are thought to reflect deeper cultural values.^[103]

In 2013, nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud. The highest pride levels were forCanadian history (70%), thearmed forces (64%), thehealth care system (64%), and theConstitution (63%). However, pride in Canada’s political influence was lower at 46%. Outside Quebec, pride ranged from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island, while 70% of Quebec residents felt proud. Seniors and women showed the most pride, especially among first- and second-generation immigrants, who valued both Canadian identity and achievements.^[104]

Western alienation is the notion that thewestern provinces have historically been alienated, and in extreme cases excluded, from mainstream Canadian political affairs in favour ofEastern Canada or more specifically thecentral provinces.^[105] Western alienation claims that these latter two are politically represented, and economically favoured, more significantly than the former, which has given rise to the sentiment of alienation among many western Canadians.^[106] Likewise; theQuebec sovereignty movement that lead to theQuébécois nation and the province of Quebec being recognized as a "distinct society" within Canada, highlights the sharp divisions between the Anglo and Francophone population.^[107]

Though more than half of Canadians live in just two provinces (Ontario and Quebec), each province is largely self-contained due to provincial economic self-sufficiency. Only 15 percent of Canadians live in a different province from where they were born, and only 10 percent go to another province for university. Canada has always been like this, and stands in sharp contrast to the United States' internal mobility which is much higher. For example 30 percent live in a different state from where they were born, and 30 percent go away for university.Scott Gilmore inMaclean's argues that "Canada is a nation of strangers", in the sense that for most individuals, the rest of Canada outside their province is little-known. Another factor is the cost of internal travel. Intra-Canadian airfares are high—it is cheaper and more common to visit the United States than to visit another province. Gilmore argues that the mutual isolation makes it difficult to muster national responses to major national issues.^[108]

Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity. There are several traditions in Canadian humour in bothEnglish andFrench.^[109][110] While these traditions are distinct and at times very different, there are common themes that relate to Canadians' shared history andgeopolitical situation in the Western Hemisphere and the world. Various trends can be noted in Canadian comedy. One trend is the portrayal of a "typical" Canadian family in an ongoing radio or television series.^[111] Other trends include outright absurdity,^[112] and political and cultural satire.^[113] Irony, parody, satire, and self-deprecation are arguably the primary characteristics of Canadian humour.^{[114][115][116]}

The beginnings of Canadian national radio comedy date to the late 1930s with the debut ofThe Happy Gang, a long-running weekly variety show that was regularly sprinkled with corny jokes in between tunes.^[117] Canadian television comedy begins withWayne and Shuster, a sketch comedy duo who performed as a comedy team during the Second World War, and moved their act to radio in 1946 before moving on to television.^[118]Second City Television, otherwise known asSCTV,Royal Canadian Air Farce,This Hour Has 22 Minutes,The Kids in the Hall,Trailer Park Boys,Corner Gas and more recentlySchitt's Creek are regarded as television shows which were very influential on the development of Canadian humour.^[119]Canadian comedians have had great success in the film industry and are amongst the most recognized in the world.^[119]

Humber College in Toronto and the École nationale de l'humour in Montreal offer post-secondary programmes in comedy writing and performance.^[120]Montreal is also home to the bilingual (English and French)Just for Laughs festival and to theJust for Laughs Museum, a bilingual, international museum of comedy.^[121] Canada has a national television channel,The Comedy Network, devoted to comedy. Many Canadian cities feature comedy clubs and showcases, most notable,The Second City branch in Toronto (originally housed atThe Old Fire Hall) and theYuk Yuk's national chain.^[122]The Canadian Comedy Awards were founded in 1999 by the Canadian Comedy Foundation for Excellence, a not-for-profit organization.^[123]

Holidays officially observed in Canada are colloquially known asstatutory holidays, and are legislated at the federal as well as provincial and territorial levels. Canada's national holidayDominion Day, later renamedCanada Day, was officially legislated in 1879 under theDominion Day Act.^[124][125]Labour Day was first legislated in 1894, after various labour organizations petitioned the government.^[126] The internationally-recognizedNew Year's Day,Good Friday, andChristmas Day were traditionally observed incolonial Canada and had been legislated under pre-existing colonial statutes in pre-Confederation Canada,^[127] and have been retained to the present day as legal holidays federally and in all provinces and territories, being officially listed in theCanada Labour Code as of 1967 as well as in equivalent legislation across all 13 provinces and territories.^[128]

While the above holidays are legislated nationwide, Canada's remaining federal holidays are not observed by all provinces and territories equally, and in their capacity as mandated holidays only apply to thefederal government andits workers. These holidays includeEaster Monday,Victoria Day,Civic Holiday,Thanksgiving,Remembrance Day, andBoxing Day. Additionally, the most recent federal holiday added isNational Day of Truth and Reconciliation, derived fromOrange Shirt Day, which was legislated under Bill C-5, theNational Day for Truth and Reconciliation Act in June 2021. Due to a lack of statutory holidays between New Year's Day and Good Friday, beginning in the early 1990s and through to the 2010s many provinces have independently added a new holiday on the third Monday in February (coinciding withPresidents' Day in the US), variably calledFamily Day, Islander Day, Louis Riel Day, and Nova Scotia Heritage Day.^[128]

In addition to legislated holidays, many other holidays are publicly celebrated to a significant degree in Canada, including the longstandingValentine's Day,St. Patrick's Day,Mother's Day,Father's Day andHalloween,^[128] as well as increasingly visible observances introduced by minority populations such asDiwali,Eid, andLunar New Year.^[129] The federal government additionally lists various observances that it deems to be "important and commemorative days" as part of theDepartment of Canadian Heritage, which include Sir John A. Macdonald Day (January 11), theNational Flag of Canada Day (February 15),Commonwealth Day (second Monday in March),National Indigenous Peoples Day (June 21),National Acadian Day (August 15), and the Anniversary of theStatute of Westminster (December 11).^[130][128]

Predominant symbols of Canada include themaple leaf,beaver, and theCanadian horse.^{[131][132][133]} Many official symbols of the country such as theFlag of Canada have been changed or modified over the past few decades to Canadianize them and deemphasize or remove references to the United Kingdom.^[134] Other prominent symbols include the sports ofhockey andlacrosse, theCanada goose, theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police, theCanadian Rockies,^[135] and more recently thetotem pole andInuksuk;^[136] material items such asCanadian beer,maple syrup,tuques,canoes,nanaimo bars,butter tarts and the Quebec dish ofpoutine have also been defined as uniquely Canadian.^[136][137] Symbols of theCanadian monarchy continue to be featured in, for example, theArms of Canada, the armed forces, and the prefixHis Majesty's Canadian Ship. The designationRoyal remains for institutions as varied as theRoyal Canadian Armed Forces, Royal Canadian Mounted Police and theRoyal Winnipeg Ballet.^[138][139]

Indigenous artists were producing art in the territory that is now called Canada for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state.^[140] Like the peoples that produced them,indigenous art traditions spanned territories that extended across the current national boundaries between Canada and the United States.^[141] The majority of indigenous artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads.^[142] Canadian sculpture has been enriched by the walrus ivory, muskox horn and caribou antler and soapstone carvings by theInuit artists.^[143] These carvings show objects and activities from the daily life, myths and legends of the Inuit.^[144] Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.^[145]

The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends.^[146] During the mid-19th century,Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch-born artist in Quebec, painted scenes of the life of thehabitants (French-Canadian farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artistPaul Kane painted pictures of indigenous life in western Canada. A group of landscape painters called theGroup of Seven developed the first distinctly Canadian style of painting, inspired by the works of the legendary landscape painter Tom Thomson.^[147] All these artists painted large, brilliantly coloured scenes of the Canadian wilderness.

Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly individual styles.Emily Carr became famous for her paintings oftotem poles in British Columbia.^[148] Other noted painters have included the landscape artistDavid Milne, thepaintersJean-Paul Riopelle,Harold Town andCharles Carson and multi-media artistMichael Snow. The abstract art groupPainters Eleven, particularly the artistsWilliam Ronald andJack Bush, also had an important impact on modern art in Canada.^[149] Government support has played a vital role in their development enabling visual exposure through publications and periodicals featuring Canadian art, as has the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country.^[150]

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.^[151] Canada's early literature, whether written in English or French, often reflects the Canadian perspective on nature, frontier life, and Canada's position in the world, for example the poetry ofBliss Carman or the memoirs ofSusanna Moodie andCatherine Parr Traill. These themes, and Canada's literary history, inform the writing of successive generations of Canadian authors, fromLeonard Cohen toMargaret Atwood.

By the mid-20th century, Canadian writers were exploring national themes for Canadian readers. Authors were trying to find a distinctly Canadian voice, rather than merely emulating British or American writers. Canadian identity is closely tied to its literature. The question of national identity recurs as a theme in much of Canada's literature, fromHugh MacLennan'sTwo Solitudes (1945) toAlistair MacLeod'sNo Great Mischief (1999). Canadian literature is often categorized byregion or province; by the socio-cultural origins of the author (for example,Acadians, indigenous peoples, LGBT, andIrish Canadians); and by literary period, such as "Canadian postmoderns" or "Canadian Poets Between the Wars".

Canadian authors have accumulated numerous international awards.^[152] In 1992,Michael Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win theBooker Prize forThe English Patient.^[153]Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000 forThe Blind Assassin^[154] andYann Martel won it in 2002 for theLife of Pi.^[155]Carol Shields'sThe Stone Diaries won theGovernor General's Awards in Canada in 1993, the 1995Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and the 1994National Book Critics Circle Award.^[156] In 2013,Alice Munro was the first Canadian to be awarded theNobel Prize in Literature forher work as "master of the modern short story".^[157] Munro is also a recipient of the Man Booker International Prize for her lifetime body of work, and three-time winner of Canada's Governor General's Award for fiction.^[158]

Canada has had a thriving stage theatre scene since the late 1800s.^[159] Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially theStratford Shakespeare Festival inStratford, Ontario, and theShaw Festival inNiagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. TheFamous People Players are only one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation.^[160] Canada also hosts one of the largestfringe festivals, theEdmonton International Fringe Festival.^[161]

Canada's largest cities host a variety of modern and historical venues. TheToronto Theatre District is Canada's largest, as well as being the third largest English-speaking theatre district in the world.^[162] In addition to original Canadian works, shows from the West End and Broadway frequently tour in Toronto. Toronto's Theatre District includes the venerableRoy Thomson Hall; thePrincess of Wales Theatre; theTim Sims Playhouse;The Second City; theCanon Theatre; thePanasonic Theatre; theRoyal Alexandra Theatre; historicMassey Hall; and the city's new opera house, theSony Centre for the Performing Arts.^[163] Toronto's Theatre District also includes theTheatre Museum Canada.

Montreal's theatre district ("Quartier des Spectacles") is the scene of performances that are mainly French-language, although the city also boasts a lively anglophone theatre scene, such as theCentaur Theatre.^[164] Large French theatres in the city includeThéâtre Saint-Denis andThéâtre du Nouveau Monde.^[165]

Vancouver is host to, among others, theVancouver Fringe Festival, theArts Club Theatre Company,Carousel Theatre,Bard on the Beach,Theatre Under the Stars andStudio 58.^[166]

Calgary is home toTheatre Calgary, a mainstream regional theatre;Alberta Theatre Projects, a major centre for new play development in Canada; theCalgary Animated Objects Society; andOne Yellow Rabbit, a touring company.^[167]

There are three major theatre venues inOttawa; theOttawa Little Theatre, originally called the Ottawa Drama League at its inception in 1913, is the longest-running community theatre company in Ottawa.^[168] Since 1969, Ottawa has been the home of theNational Arts Centre, a major performing-arts venue that houses four stages and is home to theNational Arts Centre Orchestra, theOttawa Symphony Orchestra andOpera Lyra Ottawa.^[169] Established in 1975, theGreat Canadian Theatre Company specializes in the production of Canadian plays at a local level.^[170]

Canadian television, especially supported by theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation,^[171] is the home of a variety of locally produced shows. French-language television, like French Canadian film, is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions.^[172] The success of French-language domestic television in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language counterpart. In recent years nationalism has been used to prompt products on television. TheI Am Canadian campaign byMolson beer, most notably the commercial featuring Joe Canadian, infuseddomestically brewed beer and nationalism.^[173][174]

Canada's television industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions.^[175] Since the 1980s, Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known asHollywood North.^[176] The American TV seriesQueer as Folk was filmed in Toronto. Canadian producers have been very successful in the field ofscience fiction since the mid-1990s, with such shows asThe X-Files,Stargate SG-1,Highlander: The Series, thenewBattlestar Galactica,My Babysitter's a Vampire,Smallville, andThe Outer Limits all filmed in Vancouver.^[177]

The CRTC's Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic broadcaster's transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects.^[178] These regulations also apply toUS cable television channels such asMTV and theDiscovery Channel, which have local versions of their channels available onCanadian cable networks. Similarly,BBC Canada, while showing primarilyBBC shows from the United Kingdom, also carries Canadian output.

A number ofCanadian pioneers in early Hollywood significantly contributed to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century.^[179] Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians.^[180]

Canada has developed a vigorous film industry that has produced a variety of well-known films andactors.^[181] In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the bizarre and innovative directions of some works,^[181] such as auteursAtom Egoyan (The Sweet Hereafter, 1997) andDavid Cronenberg (The Fly,Naked Lunch,A History of Violence) and theavant-garde work ofMichael Snow andJack Chambers. Also, the distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such asDenys Arcand andDenis Villeneuve, while First Nations cinema includes the likes ofAtanarjuat: The Fast Runner. At the76th Academy Awards, Arcand'sThe Barbarian Invasions became Canada's first film to win theAcademy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.^[182]

TheNational Film Board of Canada is a public agency that produces and distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the world'.^[183] Canada has produced many popular documentaries such asThe Corporation,Nanook of the North,Final Offer, andCanada: A People's History. TheToronto International Film Festival (TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevalent film festivals for Western cinema. It is the première film festival in North America from which the Oscars race begins.^[184]

Themusic of Canada has reflected the multi-cultural influences that have shaped the country. Indigenous, the French, and the British have all made historical contributions to the musical heritage of Canada. The country has produced its owncomposers,musicians andensembles since the mid-1600s.^[185][186] From the 17th century onward, Canada has developed a music infrastructure that includeschurch halls;chamber halls;conservatories;academies;performing arts centres;record companies;radio stations, and television music-video channels.^[187][188] The music has subsequently been heavily influenced by American culture because of its proximity and migration between the two countries.^{[189][190][191]}Canadian rock has had a considerable impact on the development of modernpopular music and the development of the most popularsubgenres.^[192]

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding thefirst legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest known song, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.^[193] The national anthem of Canada, "O Canada" adopted in 1980,^[194] was originally commissioned by theLieutenant Governor of Quebec, the HonourableThéodore Robitaille, for the 1880Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony.^[195]Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge SirAdolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before English lyrics were written in 1906.^[196]

Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). TheCanadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, theJuno Awards, which were first awarded in a ceremony during the summer of 1970.^[197]

Canada's media ishighly autonomous,uncensored,diverse, and very regionalized.^[198][199] TheBroadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada".^[200] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly inEnglish films,television shows, andmagazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States and the United Kingdom.^[201] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), theNational Film Board of Canada (NFB), and theCanadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).^[202]

Canadian mass media, bothprint anddigital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".^[203] The largest of these corporations is the country's nationalpublic broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operatingits own radio andTV networks in both English and French.^[204] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such asTVOntario andTélé-Québec.^[205]

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.^[206] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.^[207]Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.^[208]

Sports in Canada consists of a variety of games. Although there are many contests that Canadians value, the most common areice hockey,box lacrosse,Canadian football,basketball,soccer,curling andringette. All but curling and soccer are considered domestic sports as they were either invented by Canadians or trace their roots to Canada.^[209]

Ice hockey, referred to as simply "hockey", is Canada's most prevalentwinter sport, its most popular spectator sport, and its most successful sport in international competition. It is Canada's official national winter sport.^[210]Lacrosse, a sport withindigenous origins, is Canada's oldest andofficial summer sport.^[210]Canadian football is Canada's second most popular spectator sport,^[211] and theCanadian Football League's annual championship, theGrey Cup, is the country's largest annual sports event.^[212]

While other sports have a larger spectator base, association football, known in Canada assoccer in both English and French, has the most registered players of any team sport in Canada, and is the most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders.^[213] Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada – with atrio of teams in North America's top pro league,Major League Soccer – and international soccer competitions such as theFIFA World Cup,UEFA Euro and theUEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada.^[214] Other popular team sports includecurling,street hockey,rugby league,rugby union,softball andUltimate frisbee. Popular individual sports includeauto racing,boxing,karate,kickboxing, hunting,sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking,horse racing,ice skating,skiing,snowboarding, swimming,triathlon,disc golf,water sports, and several forms ofwrestling.

As a country with a generally cool climate, Canada has enjoyed greater success at theWinter Olympics than at theSummer Olympics, although significant regional variations in climate allow for a wide variety of both team and individual sports. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized byCanada's Sports Hall of Fame,^[215] while theLou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete by a panel of journalists.^[216] There are numerous other Sports Halls of Fame in Canada.^[215]

Canadian cuisine varies widely depending on theregion. The former Canadian prime ministerJoe Clark has been paraphrased to have noted: "Canada has a cuisine of cuisines. Not a stew pot, but a smorgasbord."^[217] While there are considerable overlaps between Canadian food and the rest of the cuisine in North America, many unique dishes (or versions of certain dishes) are found and available only in the country. Common contenders for the Canadiannational food includepoutine^{[218][219][220]} andbutter tarts.^[221][222] Other popular Canadian made foods include indigenous fried breadbannock, Frenchtourtière,Kraft Dinner,ketchup chips,date squares,nanaimo bars,back bacon, thecaesar cocktail and many many more.^[223] The Canadian province of Quebec is the birthplace and world's largest producer ofmaple syrup,^[224] TheMontreal-style bagel andMontreal-style smoked meat are both food items originally developed by Jewish communities living in Quebec^[225]

The three earliest cuisines of Canada have First Nations, English, and French roots. The indigenous population of Canada often have their own traditional cuisine. The cuisines of English Canada are closely related toBritish andAmerican cuisine. Finally, the traditional cuisines of French Canada have evolved from 16th-centuryFrench cuisine because of the tough conditions of colonial life and the winter provisions ofCoureur des bois.^[226] With subsequent waves of immigration in the 18th and 19th century from Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, and then from Asia, Africa andCaribbean, the regional cuisines were subsequently affected.^[226]

A 2022 web survey by theAssociation for Canadian Studies found that an absolute majority of respondents in all provinces except Alberta disagreed with the statement that "there is only one Canadian culture". Most respondents didn't choose what music to listen to based on whether or not the artist was Canadian. While half of Quebeckers and more than one third of respondents in the rest of Canada agreed that "I worry about preserving my culture" at the same time 60% of respondents agreed that "If a Canadian artist is good enough, they will become discovered without the need for specific Canadian content rules". Forty-six percent of respondents had no favourite Canadian musical artist. Rock, pop, and country music were the most popular genres of music, with above twenty percent fan bases in all age categories, but with hip-hop also appealing to more than twenty percent in the youngest cohort (18–35 years old). Film genre preferences were largely as the same across age categories, with comedies and action films the most popular, except that only one percent of older people (>55 years old) were fans of animated movies compared to eleven percent in young adults, while older adults showed a strong preference for dramas compared to younger people. Three out of four respondents could not name a single Canadian visual artist, living or dead.^[227]

In a 2002 interview with theGlobe and Mail,Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of theIsmaili Muslims, described Canada as "the most successfulpluralist society on the face of our globe",^[228] citing it as "a model for the world".^[229] A 2007 poll ranked Canada as the country with the most positive influence in the world. 28,000 people in 27 countries were asked to rate 12 countries as either having a positive or negative worldwide influence. Canada's overall influence rating topped the list with 54 per cent of respondents rating it mostly positive and only 14 per cent mostly negative.^[230] A global opinion poll for theBBC saw Canada ranked the second most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany) in 2013 and 2014.^[231][232]

The United States is home to a number of perceptions about Canadian culture, due to the countries' partially shared heritage and the relatively large number of cultural features common to both the US and Canada.^[233] For example, the average Canadian may be perceived as more reserved than his or her American counterpart.^[234] Canada and the United States are often inevitably compared as sibling countries, and the perceptions that arise from this oft-held contrast have gone to shape the advertised worldwide identities of both nations: the United States is seen as the rebellious child of the British Crown, forged in the fires ofviolent revolution; Canada is the calmer offspring of the United Kingdom, known for a more relaxed national demeanour.^[235][236]

• Canadiana
• Architecture of Canada
• Canadian folklore
• Culture of Quebec
• History of free speech in Canada
• Public holidays in Canada
• Canadian French
• List of Canadians
• Acadian culture

• This article incorporates content that is under anopen licence fromStatistics Canada - (FAQ).

Wikimedia Commons has media related toCulture of Canada.

• Canadian HeritageArchived December 19, 2008, at theWayback Machine
• Culture.CA – Canadian cultural portal online
• Cultural Information – Canada –Global Affairs Canada

• Culture of Canada

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