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Theculture of Asia encompasses the collective and diverse customs and traditions of art, architecture, music, literature, lifestyle, philosophy, food, politics and religion that have been practiced and maintained by the numerousethnic groups of the continent ofAsia sinceprehistory. Identification of a specific culture of Asia or universal elements among the colossal diversity that has emanated from multiple cultural spheres and three of thefour ancient River valley civilizations is complicated. However, the continent is commonly divided into six geographic sub-regions, that are characterized by perceivable commonalities, like culture, religion, language and relative ethnic homogeneity. These regions areCentral Asia,East Asia,North Asia,South Asia,Southeast Asia andWest Asia.[1]
As the largest, most populous continent and rich in resources, Asia is home to several of the world's oldest civilizations, that produced the majority of the great religious systems, the oldest known recordedmyths andcodices on ethics and morality.[2][3]
However, Asia's enormous size separates the various civilizations by great distances and hostile environments, such as deserts and mountain ranges. Yet by challenging and overcoming these distances, trade and commerce gradually developed a truly universal,Pan-Asian character. Inter-regional trade was the driving and cohesive force, by which cultural elements and ideas spread to the various sub-regions, via the vast road network and the many sea routes.[4]
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Asia's various modern cultural and religious spheres correspond roughly with the principal centers of civilization.
West Asia (or Southwest Asia asIan Morrison puts it, or sometimes referred to as theMiddle East) has their cultural roots in the pioneering civilizations of theFertile Crescent andMesopotamia, spawning thePersian,Arab,Ottoman empires, as well as the Abrahamic religions ofJudaism and laterIslam.[5] According to Morrison, in his bookWhy the West Rules--For Now, these original civilizations of theHilly Flanks are so far (by archaeological evidence) the oldest (first evidence of farming c9000 BC). TheHilly flanks is also the birthplace of his definition of thewest (which groups the Middle East with Europe). According to his definition this would make Asia the origin of western culture.[6] Not everybody agrees with him though.
South Asia, India and theIndosphere emanate from theIndus Valley civilisation.[7]
TheEast Asian cultural sphere developed from theYellow River civilization.[8]Southeast Asia's migration waves of more varied ethnic groups are relatively recent. Commercial interaction with South Asia eventually lead to the adoption of culture from India and China (including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism). The region later absorbed influences from Islam as well, and theMalays are currently the largest Islamic population in the world.[9][10] North Asia's (otherwise known asSiberia) harsh climate and unfavorable soil proved to be unsuited to permanently support large urban settlements and only permits the presence of a pastoral and nomadic population, spread over large areas. Nonetheless, North Asian religious and spiritual traditions eventually diffused into more comprehensive systems such asTibetan Buddhism that developed its own unique characteristics (e.g.Mongolian Buddhism). For these reasons it is becoming more unconventional to separate it from the rest of East Asian cultures.[11]
Central Asia has also absorbed influences from both West Asia and East Asia (including Persia and Mongolia), making it another melting pot of cultures.
The cultural spheres are not mutually disjoint and can even overlap, representing the innate diversity andsyncretism of human cultures and historical influences.
The termEast Asian cultural sphere defines the common cultural sphere ofChina,Japan,North Korea,South Korea inEast Asia andVietnam inSoutheast Asia.[12] Ethnic and linguistic similarities, shared artistic traditions, written language and moral values suggest that mostEast Asian people are descendants of theYellow River civilization, that emerged in the flood plains of northern China around 10.000 yearsB.P.[13][14] People within this sphere are sometimes referred to asEast Eurasian, and the major languages of this region (including Sino-Tibetan, Austroasiatic, Altaic, Austronesian, Kra-Dai) are thought to have originated from regions in China (seeEast Asian cultural sphere#historical linguistics).
Historically, China occupied the prominent, central role in East Asia for a long time in recorded history, as it "deeply influenced the culture of the peripheral countries and also drew them into a "China-centered" [...] international order", that was briefly interrupted by the 20th century. Nations within its orbit from Central Asia to Southeast Asia paid to theChinese tributary system (also seeList of tributaries of China). TheImperial Chinese Tributary System is based on theConfucian religious and philosophical idea of submission to celestial harmony was also recognized by nations beyond, in Southeast Asia in particular. Ceremonies were presided over by theEmperor of China as theSon of Heaven and curator of theMandate of Heaven.[15][16] In elaborate ceremonies both, the tributary state and the various Chinese dynasties agreed to mutually favorable economic co-operation and beneficial security policies.[17][18]
Some of defining East Asian cultural characteristics are the Chinese language and traditional writings systems ofHanzi as well as shared religious and ethical ideas, that are represented by theThree teachingsBuddhism,Taoism andConfucianism.[19][20][21][22][23] TheChinese script is one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in the world, and has been a major unifying force and medium for conveying Chinese culture in East Asia.Classical Chinese was the literary language of elites and bureaucrats. Historically used throughout the region, it is still in use byChinese diaspora communities around the world, as well as in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and pockets of Southeast Asia.[24][25]
However, as Chinese writing concepts were passed on to Korea, Japan and Vietnam, these nations developed their own characteristic writing systems to complementHanzi. Vietnam invented their ownChữ Nôm glyphs, Japan inventedKana, and Korea invented their own alphabetHangul. To this day, Vietnam mostly writes inChữ Quốc ngữ (a modified Latin alphabet) but there is also a resurgence ofHán-Nôm (a type of writing that combines bothChữ Hán andChữ Nôm) as well. Sino cognates compose a vast majority of the vocabulary of these languages (seeSino-Vietnamese vocabulary,Sino-Korean vocabulary,Sino-Japanese vocabulary). In the 20th century, China has also re-borrowed terms from Japan to represent western concepts known asWasei-kango.[26]
Apart from the unifying influence ofConfucianism,Taoism,Chinese characters and numerous otherChinese cultural influences, East Asian national customs, architecture, literature, cuisines, traditional music, performing arts and crafts also have developed from many independent and local concepts, they have grown and diversified as many rank among the most refined expressions of aesthetic, artistic and philosophical ideas in the world. Notable among others areJapanese gardens and landscape planning,Heian literature, VietnameseWater puppetry and the artifacts of theĐông Sơn culture.[27][28][29][30] Modern research has also focused on the several nations pivotal role on the collective body ofEast Asian Buddhism and theKorean influence on Japanese culture as well asJapanese influence on Korean culture.[31][32][33][34]
Southeast Asia divides intoMainland Southeast Asia, that encompassesVietnam,Laos,Cambodia,Thailand,Myanmar andWest Malaysia, andMaritime Southeast Asia, that includesIndonesia,East Malaysia,Singapore, thePhilippines,East Timor,Brunei,Cocos (Keeling) Islands, andChristmas Island.[35][36] At the crossroads of theIndian and East Asian maritime trade routes since around 500 B.C., the region has been greatly influenced by the culture of India and China. Most of the influence of India came in the era of theChola dynasty spreading Tamil and Hindu cultures across present south east Asian countries and even expanding and establishing Hindu kingdoms in the region. The termIndianised Kingdoms is a designation for numerous Southeast Asian political units, that had to a varying degree adopted most aspects of India's statecraft, administration, art, epigraphy, writing and architecture. The religionsHinduism,Buddhism andIslam gradually diffused into local cosmology. Nonetheless, the Southeast Asian nations have very diversely adapted to these cultural stimuli and evolved their distinct sophisticated expression in lifestyle, the visual arts and most notably in architectural accomplishments, such asAngkor Wat in Cambodia andBorobudur in Indonesia.[37][38]
Buddhist culture has a lasting and significant impact in mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam); most Buddhists in Indochina practiceTheravada Buddhism. In the case of Vietnam, it is also influenced much byConfucianism and the culture of China.Myanmar has also been exposed to Indian cultural influences. Before the 14th century,Hinduism andBuddhism were the dominant religions of Southeast Asia. Thereafter, Islam became dominant in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. Southeast Asia has also had a lot ofWestern influence due to the lasting legacy ofcolonialism. One example is the Philippines which has been heavily influenced by the United States and Spain, with Christianity (Catholicism) as the dominant religion.East Timor also demonstratesPortuguese influence through colonialism, as is also a predominantly Christian nation.
A common feature found around the region arestilt houses. These houses are elevated on stilts so that water can easily pass below them in case of a flood. Another shared feature isrice paddy agriculture, which originated in Southeast Asia thousands of years ago. Dance drama is also a very important feature of the culture, utilizing movements of the hands and feet perfected over thousands of years. Furthermore, thearts andliterature ofSoutheast Asia is very distinctive as some have been influenced byIndian (Hindu),Chinese,Buddhist, andIslamic literature.
Evidence ofNeolithic culture has been found throughout the modern states Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka that represent South Asia (also known as theIndian subcontinent). Since 3,300 B.C. in modern-day northeastern Afghanistan, in Pakistan andnorthwestern India a sophisticatedBronze Age cultural tradition emerged, that after only a few centuries fully flourished in urban centers. Due to the high quality of its arts, crafts, metallurgy and buildings, the accomplishments in urban planning, governance, trade and technology etc. it has been classified as one of the principalCradles of civilization. Referred to as theIndus Valley civilisation or Harappan Civilisation it thrived for almost 2.000 years until the onset of theVedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 B.C.).[39][40] The great significance of the Vedic texts (that don't mention cities or urban life) for South Asian culture, their impact on family, societal organisation, religion, morale, literature etc. has never been contested. The Indus Valley Civilisation on the other hand has only come to light by means of 20th century archaeology. Scholars, who employ several periodization models argue over whether South Asian tradition is consciously committed to the Harappan culture.[41][42]
Declining climatic conditions, (aridification) and population displacement (Indo-Aryan migration) are regarded as to have caused the fatal disruption of the Harappa culture, that was superseded by the rural Vedic culture.[43][44]
Following the Indo-Aryan settlement in theIndo-Gangetic Plain and the establishment of the characteristic social groups (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) in thecaste system based on theJāti model in theVarna order, the tribal entities variously consolidated into oligarchic chiefdoms or kingdoms (the 16Mahajanapadas), beginning in the sixth century B.C. The late Vedic political progress results in urbanization, strict social hierarchy, commercial and military rivalries among the settlers, that have spread all over the entire sub-continent.[45] The large body of Vedic texts and literature, supported by the archaeological sequence allows researchers to reconstruct a rather accurate and detailed image of the Vedic culture and political organisation. TheVedas constitute the oldest work of Sanskrit literature and form the basis of religious, ethic and philosophic ideas in South Asia. They are widely, but not exclusively regarded the basics and scriptural authority on worship, rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge for the future Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Commentaries and discussions also focus on the development ofvalid political ideas and concepts of societal progress andethic conformity.[46]
Hinduism,Buddhism,Jainism andSikhism are majorreligions of South Asia. After a long and complex history of cosmological and religious development, adoption and decline, theHindu-synthesis[47] and the late but thorough introduction of Islam about 80% of modern-day Indians and Nepalis identify as Hindus.[48] InSri Lanka andBhutan most people adhere to various forms of Buddhism.[49]Islam is the predominant religion inAfghanistan, theMaldives (99%),Pakistan (96%) andBangladesh (90%).[50][51][52]
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Afghanistan andPakistan are situated at thewestern periphery of South Asia, where the cultural character has been made by both theIndosphere andPersia.[53]Pakistan is split with its two western regions ofBaluchistan andKhyber Pakhtunkhwa sharing a greaterIranic heritage due to the nativePashtuns andBaloch people of the regions. Its two eastern regions ofPunjab andSindh share cultural links to Northwest India.Bangladesh and the Indian state ofWest Bengal share a common heritage and culture based on theBengali language. Theculture of India is diverse and a complex mixture of many influences.Nepal is culturally linked to both India and Tibet and the varied ethnic groups of the country share many of the festivals and cultural traditions used and celebrated inNorth andEast India and Tibet.Nepali, the dominant language of Nepal uses theDevanagari alphabet which is also used to write many North Indian languages.[54][55]Bhutan is a culturally linked to Tibet and India.Tibetan Buddhism is the dominant religion in Bhutan and theTibetan alphabet is used to writeDzongkha, the dominant language of Bhutan. There is a cultural and linguistic divide between North and South India.Sri Lanka is culturally tied to both India andSoutheast Asia.[56]Sinhala, the dominant language in the country is written inSinhala script which is derived from theKadamba-Pallava alphabet, certain cultural traditions, and aspects of itscuisine, for example, show South Indian influences. Cultural festivals, aspects of its cuisine andTheravada Buddhism, the dominant religion in Sri Lanka, show aSoutheast Asian affinity.[57]
Indo-Aryan languages are spoken inPakistan,Bangladesh, Sinhala ofSri Lanka and most of North,West and East India andNepal.Dravidian languages namely Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam languages are spoken acrossSouth India and inSri Lanka by theTamil community whileBrahui is spoken inBalochistan, Pakistan.Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken inNepal,Bhutan,North Pakistan andNorth &North East India.Iranic Languages are spoken inBaluchistan andKhyber Pakhtunkhwa inPakistan. The main languages of Afghanistan arePashto andDari.
Central Asia, in between the Caspian Sea and East Asia, envelops five formerSoviet Socialist Republics:Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Uzbekistan andTurkmenistan. However,Afghanistan is sometimes included. Its strategic and historic position around the east–west axis and the major trading routes such as theSilk Road has made it a theatre a steady exchange of ideas and east–west conflicts such as theBattle of Talas. The region was conquered and dominated by a variety of cultures, such as theChinese,Greeks,Mongols,Persians,Tatars,Russians, andSarmatians. As some Central Asian areas have been inhabited by nomadic people, numerous urban centers have developed in a distinct local character.[58][59]
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This region was mainly dominated by Russians in the Soviet era and even after its dissolution in 1991. Even now the region is dominated by them.
For the most part, North Asia (more widely known as Siberia) is considered to be made up of theAsian part of Russia solely. The geographic region of Siberia was the historical land of theTatars in theSiberia Khanate. However Russian expansion essentially undermined this and thus today it isunder Russian rule. Other ethnic groups that inhabit Siberia include theBuryats,Evenks, andYakuts. There are roughly 40 million people living in North Asia and the majority consists now ofEthnic Russians. However, many East Asians also inhabit the region, and historically they have been the majority before Russia's expansion east.
West Asia must be distinguished from theMiddle East, a more recentEurocentric term, that also includes parts of Northern Africa.[60] West Asia consists ofTurkey,Syria,Georgia,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Iraq,Iran,Lebanon,Jordan,Israel,Palestine,Saudi Arabia,Kuwait,Bahrain,Qatar,United Arab Emirates,Oman andYemen.Cyprus is frequently considered to be part of the region but it has ethnic and cultural ties toEurope as well. TheIsraelite/Jewish civilization of theFertile Crescent would have a profound impact on the rest of West Asia, giving birth to the 3Abrahamic faiths. In addition, the Jewish origins ofChristianity, along with the many cultural contributions from bothJews andArabs in Europe, meant that West Asian culture had left a lasting impact on Western civilization as well. Other indigenous West Asian religions includeZoroastrianism,Yazidism,Alevism,Druze and theBaháʼí Faith.
Today, almost 93% of West Asia's inhabitants are Muslim and is characterized bypolitical Islamic, with the exception of Israel, aJewish state. At its north-western end, Armenia and Georgia have an unmistakable Christian tradition, while Lebanon shares a large Christian and a large Muslim community. Ethnically, the region is dominated byArab,Persian,Kurdish,Azerbaijani, andTurkish people. Among them smaller indigenous groups are theJews,Assyrians,Druze,Samaritans,Yazidis andMandeans. ManyMiddle Eastern countries encompass hugedeserts where nomadic people live to this day. In great contrast, modern cities likeAbu Dhabi,Dubai,Amman,Riyadh,Tel Aviv,Doha andMuscat have developed on the coastal lands of theMediterranean Sea, thePersian Gulf and at the periphery of theArabian Desert.[61]
West Asian cuisine is immensely rich and diverse. The literature is also immensely rich withArabic,Jewish,Persian, andTurkish dominating.
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Asia is home to countless grandiose and iconic historic constructions, usually religious structures, castles and fortifications or palaces. However, after several millennia, many of the greatest buildings have been destroyed or dismantled such as theZiggurats of Mesopotamia, most of theGreat Wall of China, Greek and Hellenistic temples or the royal cities of Persia.[62]
Chinese architecture has taken shape in East Asia over many centuries as the structural principles have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and bilateral symmetry, which signifies balance. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in China, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses.[63] Since the Tang dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
Indian architecture is that vast tapestry of production of the Indian Subcontinent that encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to the sub-continent, sometimes destroying, but most of the time absorbing. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history.[64] Being few architectures brought by Mughals in Northern India. Dravidian architecture in Southern India flourished under chola's, vijayanagara, satavahana and many other south India's flourished kingdoms until the Mughals occupation and followed by Britishers in India.
Korean architecture refers to an architectural style that developed over centuries in Korea. Just like in the case of other Korean arts, architecture tends to be naturalistic, favors simplicity, avoids the extremes and is economical with shapes.
The Indonesian architecture reflects the diversity ofcultural,historical andgeographic influences that have shapedIndonesia as a whole. It ranges from native vernacular architecture, Hindu-Buddhist temples, colonial architecture, to modern architecture.
Indonesian vernacular architecture is calledrumah adat. The houses hold social significance in society and demonstrate local ingenuity in their relations to environment and spatial organisation.[65]: 5 Notable examples includeRumah Gadang,Tongkonan,Balinese houses and JavaneseJoglo. Hindu-Buddhist temple monument calledcandi, with the best example areBorobudur massive stone mandala-stupa andPrambanan Hindu temple dedicated toTrimurti gods. By the 16th century, the Portuguese followed by the Dutch colonize Indonesian archipelago, and developed European architecture technique and developedcolonial architecture.
Japanese architecture is distinctive in that it reflects a deep ″understanding of the natural world as a source of spiritual insight and an instructive mirror of human emotion″. Attention to aesthetics and the surroundings is given, natural materials are preferred and artifice is generally being avoided. Impressive wooden castles and temples, some of them 2000 years old, stand embedded in the natural contours of the local topography. Notable examples include theHōryū Temple complex (6th century),Himeji Castle (14th century),Hikone Castle (17th century) andOsaka Castle.[66]
The architecture of any country is a marker of its culture, history and tradition. The materials used, the shape, the lines, curves and colours all come together to present a masterpiece that is unique and beautiful. Vietnamese architecture is no different. From vernacular stilt houses to extravagant palaces and concrete towers, the country's building is an ode to its rich past and its promising future.
Traditional houses in Vietnam were characterized by wooden structures topped by steep roofs. The roofs would be covered with fish-scale tiles and curve outwards, while beams and rafters held up the main building. In some places, stilt houses were built and the houses usually had an odd number of rooms. However, the coming of various dynasties shaped cultural landmarks in the country in different ways. Palaces, pagodas and citadels flourished in Vietnam for over 500 years.
TheLý dynasty of the 11th century, for example, was deeply influenced by Buddhism and incorporated intricate reliefs and motifs into their architecture. In 1031, a staggering 950 pagodas were constructed by the reigning monarch Lý Thái Tông. During this period, rounded statues, door-steps, decorated roofs and bannisters were common features of Vietnamese architecture. TheImperial Citadel of Thăng Long, a UNESCO world heritage site now, is a must-visit for tourists looking to experience Vietnamese heritage up close. Located in present-day Hanoi, the citadel was the political Centre of the region for 13 centuries consecutively and will delight history buffs in particular. This magnificent structure is a fine example of Vietnamese architecture from the medieval era.
Trần dynasty, which gained a foothold in the 13th century, brought its own set of beliefs and customs that made its mark in Vietnam's architectural history. Buildings became more complex and demarcated, and gardens became a part of temples and places of worship. Tower-temples also emerged at this time; The Phổ Bình Tower in Nam Định province and Bình Sơn Tower in Vĩnh Phúc province are relics from the Trần dynasty.
Various cultural influences, notably Chinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture.[67] Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional buildings.[68] However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time of Srivijaya and ancient isthmian Malay kingdoms.
The ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris–Euphrates River system dates back to the 10th millennium BC and lead to the development of urban planning, the courtyard house, and ziggurats.[69] The basic and dominant building material was themudbrick, which is still in use in the region for the construction of residential structures. Kiln-burnt bricks were coated with a vitreous enamel for purposes of decoration and bitumen functioned as cement. Palaces or temples were constructed on terraces as rooms usually grouped round quadrangles, with large doorways and the roofs rested on richly ornamented columns.[70]
Middle Eastern dance has various styles and has spread to the West in the form known as bellydancing. In thePunjab region ofIndia andPakistan,bhangra dance is very popular. The bhangra is a celebration of the harvest. The people dance to the beat of a drum while singing and dancing.
InSoutheast Asia, dance is an integral part of the culture; the styles of dance vary from region to region and island to island. Traditional styles of dance have evolved inThailand andBurma. The Philippines have their own styles of dance such asCariñosa andTinikling; during the Spanish occupation of the Philippines, practitioners ofFilipino martial arts hid fighting movements into their dances to keep the art alive despite the fact that it was banned by the occupiers.
Martial arts figure prominently in many Asian cultures, and the first known traces of martial arts date from theXia dynasty of ancient China from over 4000 years ago. Some of the best known styles of martial arts in the world were developed in East Asia, such asKarate fromOkinawa,Judo from Japan,Taekwondo from Korea and the various styles ofChinese martial arts known collectively askung fu.Ancient India was home to manymartial arts that were mentioned in theVedas such asKhadgavidya,Dhanurvidya,Gadayuddha, andMalla-yuddha. These various martial arts and communities flourished after theVedic period. Many other styles of martial arts originated in Southeast Asia,Southeast Asian boxing fromIndochina,Vovinam from Vietnam,Arnis from the Philippines, andPencak Silat from Indonesia. In addition, popular styles ofwrestling have originated inTurkey andMongolia.
Development of Asian martial arts continues today as newer styles are created. Modernhybrid martial arts systems such asJeet Kune Do andKrav Maga often incorporate techniques from traditional East Asian martial arts. Asian martial arts are highly popular in the Western world and many have become international sports. Karate alone has 50 million practitioners worldwide.[71]
Cinema is prominent in South Asia, where theBollywood (representing the most-spoken language in the region ofHindi) andSouth Indian film industries vie for dominance.[72] Pakistan'sLollywood also is growing,[73] while historically,Bengali cinema was highly acclaimed by international film circles, with the movies ofSatyajit Ray still praised today.[74][75]
China's cinema has grown in recent decades,[76][77] with the country also influencing the content ofHollywood productions by virtue of its large market.[78]Hong Kong cinema was historically very influential, withkung fu films a major cultural export of the city for decades.[79]
Japanese and Korean productions have become very popular recently; Japaneseanime andmanga have supplemented each other and become a part of world culture,[80] whileKorean films,dramas, and music (K-pop) have grown with much support from the Korean government.[81] The 2019 Korean filmParasite was the first Asian film to win anAcademy Award.[82]
Asia is a continent with great linguistic diversity, and is home to variouslanguage families and manylanguage isolates. In fact, Asia contains almost every major language family except theBantu languages. A majority of Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according toEthnologue over 600 languages are spoken inIndonesia while over 100 are spoken in thePhilippines. Thecensus of India of 2001 recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million native speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people, with hundreds of other, smaller languages.[83]Korea, on the other hand, is home to only one language.
The main languages found in Asia, along with examples of each, are:
Arabic literature is the writing, bothprose andpoetry, produced by writers in theArabic language. One of the most famous literary works of West Asia isOne Thousand and One Arabian Nights.[84]
InTang andSong dynasty China, famous poets such asLi Bai authored works of great importance. They wroteshī (Classical Chinese: 詩) poems, which have lines with equal numbers ofcharacters, as well ascí (詞) poems with mixed line varieties.
Jewish literature consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings by Jews, both in theiroriginal homeland and in thediaspora. A sizable amount of it is written in theHebrew language, although there have been cases of literature written in Hebrew bynon-Jews.[85] Without doubt, the most important such work is theHebrew Bible (Tanakh). Many other ancient works of Hebrew literature survive, including religious and philosophical works, historical records, and works of fiction.
The famous poet and playwrightKālidāsa wrote two epics: Raghuvamsham (Dynasty of Raghu) and Kumarasambhavam (Birth of Kumar Kartikeya); they were written in ClassicalSanskrit rather than Epic Sanskrit some other examples of his plays are Abhigyanam Shakuntala . Other examples of works written in Classical Sanskrit include the Pānini's Ashtadhyayi which standardized the grammar and phonetics of Classical Sanskrit. The Laws of Manu is an important text in Hinduism. Kālidāsa is often considered to be the greatest playwright in Sanskrit literature, and one of the greatest poets in Sanskrit literature, whose Recognition of Shakuntala and Meghaduuta are the most famous Sanskrit plays. He occupies the same position in Sanskrit literature that Shakespeare occupies in English literature. Some other famous plays were Mricchakatika by Shudraka, Svapna Vasavadattam by Bhasa, and Ratnavali by Sri Harsha. Later poetic works include Geeta Govinda by Jayadeva. Some other famous works areChanakya's and Vatsyayana'sKamasutra.
In the early eleventh century, court ladyMurasaki Shikibu wroteTale of the Genji considered the masterpiece of Japanese literatures and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of anovel.Early-Modern Japanese literature (17th–19th centuries) developed comparable innovations such ashaiku, a form ofJapanese poetry that evolved from the ancienthokku (Japanese language: 発句) mode. Haiku consists of three lines: the first and third lines each have fivemorae (the roughphonological equivalent ofsyllables), while the second has seven. Original haiku masters included such figures asEdo period poetMatsuo Bashō (松尾芭蕉); others influenced by Bashō includeKobayashi Issa andMasaoka Shiki.
Korean literature begins in the Three Kingdoms period, and continues through theGoryeo andJoseon dynasties to the modern day. Examples of Korean poetric forms includesijo andgasa, with [[Chŏng Ch'ŏl]] andYun Sŏndo considered to be the supreme Korean poets. Examples of renowned Korean prose masterpieces include theMemoirs of Lady Hyegyeong,The Cloud Dream of the Nine and theChunhyangjeon.
Pakistani literature has a rich history, and draws influences from both Persian, Muslim and Indian literary traditions. The country has produced a large number of famed poets especially in the nationalUrdu language. The famousMuhammad Iqbal, regarded as the national poet, was often called "The Poet of the East" (Shair-e-Mashriq). Pakistani people wear their traditional and Islamic dress known as Shalwar Qameez.
Their Urdu poetry is widely famous in the whole world. Many times "Mushairas" are held. Pakistani women mostly prefer veil in normal routine days when going out somewhere and wear traditional "Burqa" or "Abaya".
The earliest surviving literature by Vietnamese writers is written inChữ Hán orVăn ngôn (Classical Chinese). Almost all of the official documents inVietnamese history were written in Chữ Hán, as were the first poems. Not only is the Chữ Hán foreign to modern Vietnamese speakers nowadays, these works are mostly unintelligible even when directly transliterated from Chinese into the modern Quốc ngữ script due to their Chinese syntax and vocabulary. As a result, these works must be translated into colloquial Vietnamese in order to be understood by the general public. These works include official proclamations byVietnamese emperors, royal histories, and declarations of independence from China, as well as Vietnamese poetry. In chronological order notable works include:
Works written in chữ Nôm - a locally invented script based on chữ Hán - was developed for writing the spoken Vietnamese language from the 13th century onwards. For the most part, these chữ Nôm texts can be directly transliterated into the modern chữ Quốc ngữ and be readily understood by modern Vietnamese speakers. However, since chữ Nôm was never standardized, there are ambiguities as to which words are meant when a writer used certain characters. This resulted in many variations when transliterating works in chữ Nôm intochữ Quốc ngữ. Some highly regarded works in Vietnamese literature were written in chữ Nôm, including Nguyễn Du'sTruyện Kiều,Đoàn Thị Điểm's chữ Nôm translation of the poem Chinh Phụ Ngâm Khúc (征婦吟曲 - Lament of a Warrior Wife) from theClassical Chinese poem composed by her friend Đặng Trần Côn (famous in its own right), and poems by the renowned poetHồ Xuân Hương.
Modern literatureWhile created in the seventeenth century, chữ Quốc ngữ was not widely used outside of missionary circles until the early 20th century, when the French colonial government mandated its use in French Indochina. During the early years of the twentieth century, many periodicals in chữ Quốc ngữ flourished and their popularity helped popularize chữ Quốc ngữ. While some leaders resisted the popularity of chữ Quốc ngữ as an imposition from the French, others embraced it as a convenient tool to boost literacy. After declaring independence from France in 1945, Empire of Vietnam's provisional government adopted a policy of increasing literacy with chữ Quốc ngữ. Their efforts were hugely successful, as the literacy rate jumped overnight.
In those early years, there were many variations in orthography and there was no consensus on how to write certain words. After some conferences, the issues were mostly settled, but some still linger to this day. By the mid-20th century, all Vietnamese works of literature are written in chữ Quốc ngữ, while works written in earlier scripts are transliterated into chữ quốc ngữ for accessibility to modern Vietnamese speakers. The use of the earlier scripts is now limited to historical references.
ThepolymathRabindranath Tagore, aBengali poet,dramatist, and writer from India, became in 1913 the first AsianNobel laureate. He won hisNobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had onEnglish,French, and other national literature of Europe and theAmericas. He also wroteJana Gana Mana the national anthem of India as well asAmar Sonar Bangla thenational anthem ofBangladesh. Moreover, translation of his another song “Namo Namo Matha" is the national anthem of Sri Lanka. This song was collected by his student Mr. Ananda Samarakoon and M. Nallathamby translated in Tamil language. Other Asian writers won Nobel Prizes in literature, includingYasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1966), andKenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994).Yasunari Kawabata wrote novels and short stories distinguished by their elegant and spartan diction such as the novelsSnow Country andThe Master of Go.
Families have very great importance in Asian cultures. They teach their kids that the family is their protection and the major source of their identity. They expect loyalty from their children. Parents define the law and the children are expected to obey them. This is calledfilial piety, the respect for one's parents and elders, and it is a concept that originated in China as 孝 (xiao) withConfucian teachings.[86] They are expected to have self-control, thus making it hard for them to express emotions, they are also expected to show respect through their motions and the way they speak. Children are expected to look after their parents when they grow older.[87] Sons are expected to stay home, while daughters go and live with their husband's family. In Chinese culture, sometimes children are expected to care for their elders (赡养), and in various diaspora communities one may find Chinese children living with even their grandparents.
The practice ofmatrilocality in Korea started in theGoguryeo period, continued through theGoryeo period and ended in the earlyJoseon period.[88][89] The Korean saying that when a man gets married, he is "enteringjangga" (the house of his father-in-law), stems from the Goguryeo period.[90]
Asian philosophical traditions originated in India and China, and has been classified asEastern philosophy covering a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings, including those popular within India and China. TheIndian philosophy includeJain philosophy,Hindu andBuddhist philosophies. They include elements of non-material pursuits, whereas another school of thoughtCārvāka, which originated in India, and was propounded byCharvak around 2500 years before, preached the enjoyment of material world. Middle Eastern philosophy includesIslamic philosophy as well asJewish andIranian philosophy.
During the 20th century, in the two most populous countries of Asia, two dramatically different political philosophies took shape.Mahatma Gandhi gave a new meaning toAhimsa, and redefined the concepts ofnonviolence andnonresistance. During the same period,Mao Zedong'scommunistphilosophy was crystallized.
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Asia is the birthplace of many religions such asBuddhism,Christianity,Confucianism,Druze,Hinduism,Islam,Jainism,Judaism,Mandaeism,Shintoism,Sikhism,Taoism,Yazdânism, andZoroastrianism. All major religious traditions are practiced in the region and new forms are constantly emerging. The largest religions in Asia are Islam and Hinduism, both with approximately 1.1 billion adherents. In 2010, thePew Research Center found five of the ten most religiously diverse regions in the world to be in Asia.[91]
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, a country of South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism,Zen Buddhism and Shinto took shape. Other religions of Asia include theBaháʼí Faith,Shamanism practiced inSiberia, andAnimism practiced in the eastern parts of theIndian subcontinent.
Over 60% of the global Muslim population is in Asia.[92][93][94] About 25% ofMuslims live in the South Asian region, mainly in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and the Maldives. If Afghanistan is counted, this number is even higher. The world's largest single Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in Indonesia.[95] There are also significant Muslim populations in the Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia, China, Russia, Central Asia and West Asia.[92]
Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according toPew Research Center in 2010,[96] and nearly 364 million according toBritannica Book of the Year 2014.[97] In the Philippines andEast Timor,Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. InRussia,Georgia, andArmenia,Orthodox Christianity is the predominant religion.Eastern Christian sects are the most dominant denomination in Asia, having adherents in portions of the Middle East (theLevantAnatolia andFars)[98] and South Asia. Eastern churches includeAssyrian Church of the East,Syriac Orthodox Church,Maronite Church,Syriac Catholic Church,Chaldean Catholic Church andSyro-Malabar Catholic Church, among others. SignificantChristian communities also found inCentral Asia,South Asia,Southeast Asia andEast Asia.[99]Judaism is the major religion ofIsrael.
Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include:
| Religion | Image | Adherents | Followers in Asia | ref(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baháʼí Faith |  | 7 million | 3,433,000 | [100] |
| Buddhism | .jpeg) | 520 million | >400,000,000 | [101][102] |
| Hinduism |  | 984 million | >900,000,000 | [101][103] |
| Judaism |  | 14 million | 6,373,700 | [101][104] |
| Islam |  | 2.1 billion | 1,160,000,000 | [105][92] |
| Christianity: |  | 2.4 billion | 286,100,000 - 364,000,000 | [101][106][107] |
| Jainism |  | >4.2 million | >4,200,000 | [108] |
| Shinto |  | Unknown | Unknown | |
| Sikhism |  | 25 million | Unknown | [101] |
| Taoism |  | ~173 million | ~173 million | [109] |
| Druze |  | 1 million | >1 million | [110] |
| Zoroastrianism |  | 190,000 | Unknown | [111] |
| Shamanism |  | Unknown | Unknown | |
| Animism | — | Unknown | Unknown |
Asia has a variety of festivals and celebrations. In China,Chinese New Year,Dragon Boat Festival, andMid-Autumn Moon Festival are traditional holidays, whileNational Day is a holiday of the People's Republic of China.
InJapan,Japanese New Year,National Foundation Day,Children's Day,O-bon,The Emperor's Birthday andChristmas are popular. According to Japanesesyncretism, most Japanese celebrateBuddhism's O-bon in midsummer,Shinto'sShichi-Go-San in November, and Christmas andHatsumoude in winter together.
InIndia,Republic Day andIndependence Day are important national festivals celebrated by people irrespective of faith. MajorHindu festivals of India includeDiwali,Dussehra or Daserra,Holi,Makar Sankranti,Pongal,Mahashivratri,Ugadi,Navratri,Ramanavami,Baisakhi,Onam,Rathayatra,Ganesh Chaturthi andKrishna Janmaashtami. Islamic festivals such asEid ul-Fitr andEid ul-Adha, Sikh festivals such asVaisakhi, and Christian festivals such as Christmas, are also celebrated in India.
ThePhilippines is also tagged as the "Fiesta Country" because of its all-year-round celebrations nationwide. There is a very strong Spanish influence in their festivals, thus making the Philippines distinctively "Western", yet retaining its native Asian characteristics. Fiesta is the term used to refer to afestival. Most of these fiestas are celebrated in honor of a patron saint. To summarize it all, at least every city or municipality has a fiesta. Some prime examples includeSinulog fromCebu andDinagyang ofIloilo. Other famous Philippine festivals include theMassKara Festival ofBacolod andPanagbenga Festival ofBaguio.
InIndonesia, theIndependence Day and the birthday ofPancasila are important. ThisMuslim majority country also celebrates Islamic celebrations and festivals, such asEid ul-Fitr,Eid ul-Adha,Mawlid,Islamic New Year,Ashura,Tabuik, andTasyrik day.
Due to the vastness of Asia, popularity of sports varies greatly across the continent.
Association football is widely popular in Asia.Boxing,badminton, andtable tennis are very popular in East Asia.Baseball is popular in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.Cricket isespecially popular in South Asia, having mainly been played in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, and more recently, in Nepal and Afghanistan.Traditional sports such askabaddi andkho-kho also are watched to a significant extent in South Asia.[112]
In many parts of Asia,rice is a staple food, and it is mostly servedsteamed or as aporridge known ascongee. China is the world largest producer and consumer of rice. While grain flatbread were consumed in the Middle East to the Indian subcontinent.
Traditionally, it is a common practice in Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, and some parts of Southeast Asia to eat using their bare hand. However, Western cutlery such as spoons and forks are currently being used increasingly and have also become widely available. With the advent of western cutlery, it may be viewed as rude in these nations to eat using the bare hands in some public places. While in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Vietnam, people usually usechopsticks to eat traditional food, but the shape of chopsticks are different in these countries. For example, Chinese chopsticks are long and square; Vietnamese chopsticks are long, being thick at one end and then gradually getting thinner at the other end, and are made of wood or bamboo; Japanese chopsticks are rounder, short, and spiral, having been designed to eat bony fish easily; Taiwanese chopsticks are made of materials such asbamboo, wood, and metal; Korean chopsticks are short, flat, and made of metal. It is said that wood is rarer than metal on the Korean Peninsula[citation needed] and that metal chopsticks can prevent poisoning. Fresh raw fish cuisines, such assushi andsashimi are very popular in East Asia (especially Japan). These raw fish dishes were influenced by two major cultures: Chinese and Japanese.
In India, people often eat food with their hands, and manyspices such ascardamom,cumin, andfennel seeds are used in every dish. Most spices originated within the Indian subcontinent.Durians are a common fruit inSoutheast Asia, which,Alfred Russel Wallace, attested to its delicious flavor as worth the entire cost of his trip there.
Thecuisine of Indonesia possess rich and diverse collection of dishes and recipes with regional cooking tradition flourished, such asMinangSundanese toBalinese. Most Indonesians consume steamed rice with flavorful meat, fish, and vegetables in one serving such as inNasi Padang andnasi campur. Other notable example includerendang,satay,soto, andnasi goreng.
InFilipino banquet, many unique dishes have arisen because of the country's long years of colonization and interactions with other neighboring cultures and nations; it has inherited Latin, Malay, Chinese, and American influences to its people's local blend.[113]
The culture of Asia is divided into several overlappingcultural spheres, including:
^ John Lindley (1889),Treasury of Botany vol 1. p. 435. Longmans, Green, & Co; New and rev. ed edition (1889)
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