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Culture jamming (sometimes alsoguerrilla communication)[1][2] is a form of protest used by manyanti-consumeristsocial movements[3] to disrupt or subvertmedia culture and its mainstream cultural institutions, including corporateadvertising. It attempts to "expose the methods of domination" ofmass society.[4]
Culture jamming employs techniques originally associated withLetterist International, and laterSituationist International known asdétournement. It uses the language andrhetoric of mainstream culture to subversively critique the social institutions that produce that culture. Tactics include editing companylogos to critique the respective companies, products, or concepts they represent, or wearingfashion statements that criticize the current fashion trends by deliberately clashing with them.[5] Culture jamming often entails usingmass media to produceironic orsatirical commentary about itself, commonly using the original medium's communication method. Culture jamming is also a form ofsubvertising.[6][7]
Culture jamming aims to highlight and challenge the political assumptions underlyingcommercial culture, and argues that culture jamming is a response to socially imposedconformity. Prominent examples of culture jamming include the adulteration ofbillboard advertising by theBillboard Liberation Front andcontemporary artists such asRon English. Culture jamming may involve street parties andprotests. While culture jamming usually focuses on subverting or critiquing political and advertising messages, some proponents focus on a different form which brings together artists, designers, scholars, and activists[8] to create works that transcend the status quo rather than merely criticize it.[9][10]
The term was coined byDon Joyce[11] of Americansound collage bandNegativland, with the release of their albumJamCon '84.[12][13][14] The phrase "culture jamming" comes from the idea ofradio jamming,[13] where public frequencies can be pirated and subverted for independent communication, or to disrupt dominant frequencies used by governments. In one of the tracks of the album, Joyce stated:[13]
As awareness of how the media environment we occupy affects and directs our inner life grows, some resist. The skillfully reworked billboard... directs the public viewer to a consideration of the original corporate strategy. The studio for the cultural jammer is the world at large.
According toVince Carducci, although the term was coined by Negativland, the practice of culture jamming can be traced as far back as the 1950s.[15] One particularly influential group that was active in Europe was theSituationist International and was led byGuy Debord. The SI asserted that in the past, humans dealt with life and the consumer market directly. They argued that this spontaneous way of life was slowly deteriorating as a direct result of the new "modern" way of life. Situationists saw everything from television to radio as a threat[16] and argued that life in industrialized areas, driven by capitalist forces, had become monotonous, sterile, gloomy, linear, and productivity-driven. In particular, the SI argued humans had become passive recipients ofthespectacle, a simulated reality that generates the desire to consume, and positions humans as obedient consumerist cogs within the efficient and exploitative productivity loop of capitalism.[10][17] Through playful activity, individuals could createsituations, the opposite of spectacles. For the SI, these situations took the form of thedérive, or the active drift of the body through space in ways that broke routine and overcame boundaries, creating situations by exiting habit and entering new interactive possibilities.[10]
The cultural criticMark Dery traces the origins of culture jamming to medievalcarnival, whichMikhail Bakhtin interpreted, inRabelais and His World and other writings, as an officially sanctioned inversion of the social hierarchy.[18] Modern precursors might include: the media-savvy agit-prop of the anti-Nazi photomonteurJohn Heartfield, the sociopolitical street theater and staged media events of 1960s radicals such asAbbie Hoffman,Joey Skaggs, theGerman concept ofSpaßguerilla, and in theSituationist International (SI) of the 1950s and 1960s.[citation needed] The SI first compared its own activities toradio jamming in 1968, when it proposed the use ofguerrilla communication withinmass media to sow confusion within the dominant culture.[citation needed] In 1985, theGuerrilla Girls formed to expose discrimination and corruption in theart world.[19]
Mark Dery'sNew York Times article on culture jamming, "The Merry Pranksters And the Art of the Hoax"[13] was the first mention, in the mainstream media, of the phenomenon; Dery later expanded on this article in his 1993Open Magazine pamphlet,Culture Jamming: Hacking, Slashing, and Sniping in the Empire of the Signs,[20] a seminal essay that remains the most exhaustive historical, sociopolitical, and philosophical theorization of culture jamming to date.Adbusters, a Canadian publication espousing an environmentalist critique ofconsumerism and advertising, began promoting aspects of culture jamming after Dery introduced founder and editorKalle Lasn to the term through a series of articles he wrote for the magazine. In her critique of consumerism,No Logo, the Canadian cultural commentator and political activistNaomi Klein examines culture jamming in a chapter that focuses on the work ofJorge Rodriguez-Gerada. Through an analysis of theWhere the Hell is Matt viral videos, researchers Milstein and Pulos analyze how the power of the culture jam to disrupt the status quo is currently being threatened by increasing commercial incorporation.[10] For example, T-Mobile utilized the Liverpool street underground station to host a flashmob to sell their mobile services.
Culture jamming is a form of disruption that plays on theemotions of viewers and bystanders. Jammers want to disrupt the unconscious thought process that takes place when most consumers view a popular advertising and bring about adétournement.[16] Activists that utilize this tactic are counting on theirmeme to pull on the emotional strings of people and evoke some type of reaction. The reactions that most cultural jammers are hoping to evoke are behavioral change and political action. There are fouremotions that activists often want viewers to feel. These emotions –shock,shame,fear, andanger – are believed to be the catalysts for social change.[21] Culture jamming also intersects with forms of legal transgression. Semiotic disobedience, for example, involves both authorial and proprietary disobedience,[22] while techniques such as coercive disobedience comprise acts of culture jamming combined with a demonstration of the retaliatory actions (legal consequences) handed down by the ruling apparatus.[23]
One of the earliest American culture jammers,Joey Skaggs began staging elaborate media hoaxes in the 1960s as a form of social critique and performance art. His satirical projects, including the Cathouse for Dogs (a fictitious brothel for canines) and the Comacocoon (a fake sensory-deprivation vacation therapy), targeted institutional authority and exposed the media's susceptibility to sensationalism. Skaggs' interventions are regarded as foundational to the development of culture jamming as a strategy for media activism and public discourse.[24]
The basic unit in which a message is transmitted in culture jamming is thememe. Memes are condensed images that stimulate visual, verbal, musical, or behavioral associations that people can easily imitate and transmit to others. The term meme was coined and first popularized by geneticistRichard Dawkins, but later used by cultural critics such asDouglas Rushkoff, who claimed memes were a type ofmedia virus.[25] Memes are seen asgenes that can jump from outlet to outlet and replicate themselves or mutate upon transmission, just like a virus.[26]
Culture jammers will often use common symbols such as the McDonald's golden arches or Nike swoosh to engage people and force them to think about their eating habits or fashion sense.[27] In one example, jammerJonah Peretti used the Nike symbol to stir debate on sweatshop child labor and consumer freedom. Peretti made public exchanges between himself and Nike over a disagreement. Peretti had requested custom Nikes with the word "sweatshop" placed in the Nike symbol. Nike refused. Once this story was made public, it spread worldwide and contributed to the already robust conversation[28] about Nike's use of sweatshops,[27] which had been ongoing for a decade prior to Peretti's 2001 stunt.
Jammers can also organize and participate in mass campaigns. Examples of cultural jamming like Perretti's are more along the lines of tactics that radical consumer social movements would use. These movements push people to question the taken-for-granted assumption that consuming is natural and good and aim to disrupt the naturalization of consumer culture; they also seek to create systems of production and consumption that are more humane and less dominated by global corporatelate capitalism.[29]
Past mass events and ideas have includedBuy Nothing Day, virtual sit-ins and protests over the Internet, producing ‘subvertisements' and placing them in public spaces, and creating and enacting ‘place jamming' projects where public spaces are reclaimed and nature is re-introduced into urban places.[30]
The most effective form of jamming is to use an already widely recognizable meme to transmit the message. Once viewers are forced to take a second look at the mimicked popular meme they are forced out of their comfort zone. Viewers are presented with another way to view the meme and are forced to think about the implications presented by the jammer.[16] More often than not, when this is used as a tactic the jammer is going for shock value. For example, to make consumers aware of the negative body image that big-namefashion brands are frequently accused of causing, a subvertisement ofCalvin Klein's 'Obsession' was created and played worldwide. It depicted a young woman with an eating disorder throwing up into a toilet.[31]
Another way that social consumer movements hope to utilize culture jamming effectively is by employing ametameme. A metameme is a two-level message that punctures a specific commercial image but does so in a way that challenges some larger aspect of the political culture of corporate domination.[27] An example would be the "true cost" campaign set in motion byAdbusters. "True cost" forced consumers to compare the human labor cost and conditions and environmental drawbacks of products to the sales costs. Another example would be the "Truth" campaigns that exposed the deception tobacco companies used to sell their products.
Following critical scholars likePaulo Freire, culture jams are also being integrated into the university classroom setting, "in which students and teachers gain the opportunity not only to learn methods of informed public critique but also to collaboratively use participatory communication techniques to actively create new locations of meaning."[10] For example, students disrupt public space to bring attention to community concerns or utilize subvertisements to engage withmedia literacy projects.
Some scholars and activists, such as Amory Starr and Joseph D. Rumbo, have argued that culture jamming is futile because it is easily co-opted and commodified by the market, which tends to "defuse" its potential for consumer resistance.[32][33] A newer understanding of the term has been called for that would encourage artists, scholars and activists to come together and create innovative, flexible, and practical mobile art pieces that communicate intellectual and political concepts and new strategies and actions.[9]
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