Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offeredvinegar mixed withmyrrh or gall (likelyposca)[8] to drink. AtGolgotha, he was then hung between two convicted thieves and, according to theGospel of Mark, was crucified at the third hour (9 a.m.), and died by the ninth hour of the day (at around 3:00 p.m.). During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" which, according to the Gospel of John, was written in three languages (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek). They then divided his garments among themselves and cast lots for his seamless robe, according to the Gospel of John. The Gospel of John also states that, after Jesus' death, one soldier (named in extra-Biblical tradition asLonginus) pierced his side with aspear to be certain that he had died, thenblood and water gushed from the wound. The Bible describesseven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as severalsupernatural events that occurred.
Paul is the earliest surviving source (apart from thegospels) to document Jesus' crucifixion.[10] Scholars have used Paul's chronology as evidence for the date of the crucifixion.[11] However, the earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the fourcanonical gospels.[12] In theSynoptic Gospels,Jesus predicts his death in three separate places.[13] All four gospel accounts conclude with an extended narrative ofJesus' arrest,initial trial at the Sanhedrin and final trial atPilate's court, where Jesus is flogged, condemned to death, is led to the place of crucifixion initiallycarrying his cross before Roman soldiers induceSimon of Cyrene to carry it, and then Jesus is crucified,entombed, andresurrected from the dead. In each gospel account these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.[14]: p.91
After arriving atGolgotha, Jesus was offered wine mixed withmyrrh orgall to drink. Both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew record that he refused this. He was then crucified and hanged between two convicts. According to some translations of the original Greek, the convicts may have been bandits or Jewish rebels.[15] According to the Gospel of Mark, he endured the torment of crucifixion from the third hour (between approximately 9 a.m. and noon),[16] until his death at the ninth hour, corresponding to about 3 p.m.[17] The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" which, according to the Gospel of John, was inthree languages (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek), and then divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe. According to the Gospel of John, the Roman soldiers did not break Jesus' legs, as they did to the two crucified convicts (breaking the legs hastened the onset of death), as Jesus was dead already. Each gospel has its own account of Jesus' last words,seven statements altogether.[18]
Bronzino's depiction of the crucifixion with three nails, no ropes, and ahypopodium standing support,c. 1545
All four gospel accounts state that, following Jesus' death,Joseph of Arimathea requested Jesus' body and buried it in a rock-cuttomb.[19] The Gospel of Matthew alone suggests that Joseph provided his own tomb for this purpose.[20]
The threeSynoptic Gospels describeSimon of Cyrene bearing the cross,[21] a crowd of people mocking Jesus[22] along with the other two crucified men,[23] darkness from the sixth to the ninth hour,[24] and thetemple veil being torn from top to bottom.[25] The Synoptic Gospels also mention several witnesses, including acenturion,[26] and several women who watched from a distance,[27] two of whom were present during the burial.[28]
The Gospel of Luke is the only gospel to omit the detail of the sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed,[29] while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross.[30]
There are several details that are only mentioned in a single gospel account. For instance, only Matthew mentions an earthquake,resurrected saints who went to the city, and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb,[31] while Mark is the only one to state the time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 a.m. – although it was probably as late as noon)[32] and the centurion's report of Jesus' death.[33] Luke's unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus' words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath.[34] John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier's subsequent piercing of Jesus' side (as fulfillment ofOld Testament prophecy), as well as thatNicodemus assisted Joseph with burial.[35]
According to theFirst Epistle to the Corinthians,[36] Jesus was raised from the dead ("on the third day" counting the day of crucifixion as the first) and, according to the canonical gospels,appeared to his disciples on different occasions beforeascending to heaven.[37] The account given inActs of the Apostles says that Jesus remained with theapostles for 40 days, whereas the account in the Gospel of Luke makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension.[38][39] Most biblical scholars agree that the author of Lukealso wrote the Acts of the Apostles as a follow-up volume to the Gospel of Luke account, and the two works must be considered as a whole.[40]
In Mark, Jesus is crucified along with two rebels, and the sun goes dark or is obscured for three hours.[41] Jesus calls out toGod, then gives a shout and dies.[41] The curtain of the Temple is torn in two.[41] Matthew follows Mark, but mentions an earthquake and the resurrection of saints.[42] Luke also follows Mark, although he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises that he (Jesus) and the criminal will be together in paradise.[43] Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion.[44] John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differently.[45]
This happened at nine in the morning on the day of Passover (14:12, 15:25).
—
This happened at "about noon" on the Day of Preparation before Passover (19:14, 31)
Mocking
27:37–44
15:26–32
23:35–43
19:19–22, 25–27
Sign: "This is Jesus, the king of the Jews".
Sign: "The king of the Jews".
Sign: "This is the king of the Jews".
Sign: "Jesus of Nazareth, the king of the Jews".
—
—
—
High priests complained to Pilate: "Don't write "King of the Jews", but that this man claimed to be king of the Jews." Pilate: "Quod scripsi, scripsi."
Passersby, high priests, teachers of the law, elders and both rebels mocked Jesus.
Passersby, high priests, teachers of the law and both rebels mocked Jesus.
The people's rulers, soldiers (offered wine vinegar) and one criminal mocked Jesus.
—
—
—
The other criminal defended him, and asked Jesus to remember him.
Tombs broke open, many dead came back to life and appeared to many people in Jerusalem.
—
—
—
Centurion and soldiers terrified: "Surely he was the Son of God."
Centurion: "Surely this man was the Son of God."
Centurion: "Surely this was a righteous man."
—
—
—
—
Soldiers broke the legs of the other two crucified men, but not Jesus' legs (this fulfilled a prophecy), but did pierce his side with a spear (this fulfilled another prophecy).
Christ on the Cross between two thieves. Illumination from theVaux Passional, 16th centuryCrucifixion, from theBuhl Altarpiece, a particularly largeGothicoil on panel painting from the 1490s
An early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to beMara Bar-Serapion's letter to his son, written some time after AD 73 but before the 3rd century AD.[49][50][51] The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be neitherJewish norChristian.[49][50][52] The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men:Socrates,Pythagoras, and "the wise king" of the Jews.[49][51] Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "king of the Jews" is about the crucifixion of Jesus, while others place less value in the letter, given the ambiguity in the reference.[52][53]
Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, ... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles ... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross ...
Most modern scholars agree that while this Josephus passage (called theTestimonium Flavianum) includes some laterinterpolations, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.[5][6]James Dunn states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in theTestimonium.[55]
Early in the 2nd century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made byTacitus, generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians.[56][57] Writing inThe Annals (c. AD 116), Tacitusdescribed the persecution of Christians by Nero and stated (Annals 15.44) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:[54][58]
Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus.
Scholars generally consider theTacitus reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source.[56][59][60][61][62][63] Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.[64]
The Christians, you know, worship a man to this day,--the distinguished personage who introduced their novel rites, and was crucified on that account.[65]
Given that Lucian's understanding of Christian traditions has significant gaps and errors, his writing is unlikely to have been influenced by Christians themselves, and he may provide an independent statement about the crucifixion of Jesus.[66]
Another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the 2nd century was made byCelsus, a Greek philosopher and opponent ofearly Christianity. His literary workThe True Word survives exclusively via quotations inContra Celsum, written in 248 byOrigen of Alexandria in order to refute Celsus' claims about Christianity.[67] Origen quotes Celsus as saying:
You ... mock and revile the statues of our gods; but if you had reviledBacchus orHercules in person, you would not perhaps have done so with impunity. But those who crucified your God when present among men, suffered nothing for it, either at the time or during the whole of their lives.[68]
Another possible reference to the crucifixion ("hanging", cf.Luke 23:39;Galatians 3:13) is found in the BabylonianTalmud:
On the eve of the PassoverYeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, "He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel toapostasy. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf." But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover.
Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above 2nd-century passage is likely to be about Jesus,Peter Schäfer stating that there can be no doubt that this narrative of the execution in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth.[69]Robert Van Voorst states that the Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it.[70] Sanhedrin 43a relates that Yeshu had been condemned to death bythe royal government of Judaea – this lineage was stripped of all legal authority uponHerod the Great's ascension to the throne in 37 BC, meaning the execution had to have taken place close to 40 years before Jesus was even born.[71][72]
Muslims maintain that Jesus was not crucified and that those who thought they had killed him had mistakenly killed someone else in his place, whetherJudas Iscariot,Simon of Cyrene, or someone else.[73] They hold this belief based on various interpretations ofQuran4:157–158, which states: "they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them [or, it appeared so unto them], ... Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself".[73]
Some early ChristianGnostic sects, believing Jesus did not have a physical substance, denied that he was crucified.[74][75] In response,Ignatius of Antioch insisted that Jesus was truly born and was truly crucified and wrote that those who held that Jesus only seemed to suffer only seemed to be Christians.[76][77]
In scholarship on the historical Jesus, thebaptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be the two most certain historical facts about Jesus.[78][79][4][80][81][note 1]Various criteria are used to determine the historicity of the elements of the New Testamentical narratives, and help to establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event.[80] Thecriterion of embarrassment argues that Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.[80] The criterion ofmultiple attestation is the confirmation by more than one source,[82] including multiple non-Christian sources,[note 2] and the criterion of coherence argues that it fits with other historical elements.[82]
Although scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it.[83] For example, bothE. P. Sanders andPaula Fredriksen support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell his own crucifixion and thathis prediction of the crucifixion is a "church creation".[84]: 126 On the other hand, Michael Patrick Barber argues that theHistorical Jesus predicted his violent death.[85] Tucker Ferda argues that theHistorical Jesus did believe he might die.[86]Geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event, but provides his own explanation and background for it.[84]Bart Ehrman states that Jesus portrayed himself as the leader of the future Kingdom and that a number of criteria- the criterion of multiple attestation and criterion of dissimilarity - establishes the crucifixion of Jesus as an enemy of state.[87]
Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, in 1968, an archeological discovery just northeast of Jerusalem uncovered the body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century, which provided good confirmatory evidence that crucifixions occurred during the Roman period roughly according to the manner in which the crucifixion of Jesus is described in the gospels.[88] The crucified man was identified asYehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about AD 70, around the time of theJewish revolt against Rome. The analyses at theHadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s.[89][90] Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the 1st century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite, now held by theIsrael Antiquities Authority and displayed in theIsrael Museum.[91]
There is no consensus regarding the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus, although it is generally agreed by biblical scholars that it was on aFriday on or nearPassover (Nisan 14), during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (who ruled AD 26–36).[92] Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion, including the canonical Gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul, as well as differentastronomical models. Scholars have provided estimates in the range AD 30–33,[93][94][95][11] withRainer Riesner stating that "the fourteenth of Nisan (7 April) of the year 30 AD is, apparently in the opinion of the majority of contemporary scholars as well, far and away the most likely date of the crucifixion of Jesus."[96] Another preferred date among scholars is Friday, 3 April, AD 33.[97][98]
The consensus of scholarship is that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have also been proposed.[99] Some scholars explain a Thursday crucifixion based on a "double sabbath" caused by an extra Passover sabbath falling on Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon, ahead of the normal weekly Sabbath.[100] Some have argued that Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday, on the grounds of the mention of "three days and three nights" inMatthew 12:40 before his resurrection, celebrated on Sunday. Others have countered by saying that this ignores the Jewish idiom by which a "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24-hour period, that the expression in Matthew is idiomatic, not a statement that Jesus was 72 hours in the tomb, and that the many references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights.[101] Furthermore, a few scholars have made the case that Matthew used the phrase "the heart of the earth" to refer to Jerusalem, and thus the period includes the entirety of the time Jesus spent in Jerusalem following his return fromBethany on Thursday, which lasted exactly three days and three nights.[102][103]
InMark 15:25 crucifixion takes place at the third hour (9a.m.) and Jesus' death at the ninth hour (3 p.m.).[104] InJohn 19:14 Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour.[105] Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue, some suggesting a reconciliation, e.g., based on the use ofRoman timekeeping in John, since Roman timekeeping began at midnight and this would mean being before Pilate at the sixth hour was 6 a.m., yet others have rejected the arguments.[105][106][107] Several scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available, and time was often approximated to the closest three-hour period.[105][108][109]
The threeSynoptic Gospels refer to a man calledSimon of Cyrene whom the Roman soldiers order to carry the cross after Jesus initially carries it but then collapses,[110] while the Gospel of John just says that Jesus "bears" his own cross.[111]
Luke's gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"[112]
TheGospel of Luke has Jesus address these women as "daughters of Jerusalem", thus distinguishing them from the women whom the same gospel describes as "the women who had followed him from Galilee" and who were present at his crucifixion.[113]
There is no reference to a woman namedVeronica in the Gospels,[114] but sources such asActa Sanctorum describe her as a pious woman ofJerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead.[115][116][117][118]
The precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical accounts indicate that it was outside the city walls of Jerusalem,[119] accessible to passers-by[120] and observable from some distance away.[121]Eusebius identified its location only as being north ofMount Zion,[122] which is consistent with the two most popularly suggested sites of modern times.
Calvary as an English name for the place is derived from the Latin word for skull (calvaria), which is used in theVulgate translation of "place of a skull", the explanation given in all four Gospels of the Aramaic wordGûlgaltâ (transliterated into theGreek asΓολγοθᾶ (Golgotha)), which was the name of the place where Jesus was crucified.[123] The text does not indicate why it was so designated, but several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e., the place of "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll.[124]
The traditional site, inside what is now occupied by theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in theChristian Quarter of theOld City, has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon's Calvary[125]), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called theGarden Tomb, has been promoted since the 19th century.
The Gospels describe variouswomen at the crucifixion, some of whom are named. According to Mark, many women were present, among themMary Magdalene,Mary, mother of James andMary of Clopas,[126] commonly known as "the Three Marys". The Gospel of Matthew also mentions several women being present, among them Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and the mother of Zebedee's children.[127] Although a group of women is mentioned in Luke, neither is named.[128] The Gospel of John speaks of women present, among them themother of Jesus, Mary Magdalene and Mary of Clopas.[129]
Aside from these women, the three Synoptic Gospels speak of the presence of others: "the chief priests, with the scribes and elders",[130] two crucified criminals, to Jesus' right and left,[131] "the soldiers",[132] "the centurion and those who were with him, keeping watch over Jesus",[133] passers-by,[134] "bystanders",[135] "the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle",[136] and "his acquaintances".[128] The two criminals are described asλῃσταί (variously translated as robbers, rebels or thieves) and further discussed in the Gospel of Luke as thepenitent thief and theimpenitent thief.[137]
Crucifixion of Jesus on a two-beamed cross, from theSainte Bible (1866)Torture stake, a simple wooden torture stake. Image byJustus Lipsius.
Most Christians believe thegibbet on which Jesus was executed was the traditional two-beamed cross.[142]Jehovah's Witnesses hold the distinctive view that a single upright stake was used.[143] The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous. TheKoine Greek terms used in the New Testament arestauros (σταυρός) andxylon (ξύλον). The latter means wood (a live tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earlier forms of Greek, the former term meant an upright stake or pole, but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross.[142] The Latin wordcrux was also applied to objects other than a cross.[144]
Early Christian writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, theEpistle of Barnabas, which was certainly earlier than 135,[145] and may have been of the 1st century AD,[146] the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written, likened it to the letter T (the Greek lettertau, which had thenumeric value of 300),[147] and to the position assumed byMoses inExodus 17:11–12.[148]Justin Martyr (100–165) explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb."[149]Irenaeus, who died around the end of the 2nd century, speaks of the cross as having "five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails."[150]
The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails.[151] Throughout history, larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails.[152] These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion.[153] InWestern Christianity, before theRenaissance usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other.[153] Nails are almost always depicted in art, althoughRomans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross.[153] The tradition also carries to Christianemblems, e.g. theJesuits use three nails under theIHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion.[154]
The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek wordcheir (χείρ) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails throughDestot's space (between thecapitate andlunate bones) without fracturing any bones.[155] Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near theradius andulna of theforearm.[156] Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails.[157]
Another issue of debate has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th centuryRasmus Bartholin considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic.[152] In the 20th century, forensic pathologistFrederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions.[156] His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in anAufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by theNazis in theDachau concentration camp duringWorld War II), death comes rather quickly.[158]
E′li, E′li, la′ma sa‧bach‧tha′ni?[160] (Aramaic for "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?"). Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso said Jesus most likely spoke Galilean Aramaic,[161] which would render the pronunciation of these words:əlahí əlahí ləmáh šəvaqtáni.[162]
The only words of Jesus on the cross mentioned in the Mark and Matthew accounts, this is a quotation ofPsalm 22. Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts, some commentators consider it a literary and theological creation.Geza Vermes noted the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the usual Hebrew, and that by the time of Jesus, this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage.[163] Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels, which he describes as "theologically correct and reassuring", he considers this phrase "unexpected, disquieting and in consequence more probable".[164] He describes it as bearing "all the appearances of a genuine cry".[165]Raymond Brown likewise comments that he finds "no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark/Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote".[166]
The words of Jesus on the cross, especially hislast words, have been the subject of a wide range of Christian teachings and sermons, and a number of authors have written books specifically devoted to the last sayings of Christ.[174][175][176][177][178][179]
The synoptics report variousmiraculous events during the crucifixion.[180][181] Mark mentions a period of darkness in the daytime during Jesus' crucifixion, and the Temple veil being torn in two when Jesus dies.[41] Luke follows Mark;[43] as does Matthew, additionally mentioning an earthquake and theresurrection of dead saints.[42] No mention of any of these appears in John.[182]
Christ on the Cross, 1870, byCarl Heinrich Bloch, showing the skies darkened
In the synoptic narrative, while Jesus is hanging on the cross, the sky overJudaea (or the whole world) is "darkened for three hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon). There is no reference to darkness in the Gospel of John account, in which the crucifixion does not take place until after noon.[183]
Some ancient Christian writers considered the possibility that pagan commentators may have mentioned this event and mistook it for a solar eclipse, pointing out that an eclipse could not occur during the Passover, which takes place during the full moon when the moon is opposite the sun rather than in front of it. Christian traveler and historianSextus Julius Africanus and Christian theologianOrigen refer to Greek historianPhlegon, who lived in the 2nd century AD, as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place".[184]
Sextus Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historianThallus: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the Passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the Passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun."[185] Christian apologistTertullian believed the event was documented in the Roman archives.[186]
Colin Humphreys and Graeme Waddington ofOxford University considered the possibility that a lunar, rather than solar, eclipse might have taken place.[187][188] They concluded that such an eclipse was visible in Jerusalem on the date of April 3, AD 33, that its peak was at 5:15 pm Jerusalem time, but that it was visible after sundown (the beginning of the Sabbath and of Passover) for half an hour. Some of the oldest manuscripts of Luke say "the sun was eclipsed" (23:45) at the time of the crucifixion. The authors suggest that this may be due to a scribe changing the word "moon" to "sun" to explain the darkness, or else that the word "eclipsed" just meant darkened or hidden, as in a passage of theSibylline Oracles. Historian David Henige dismisses this explanation[which?] as "indefensible".[189] More objectively, astronomer Bradley Schaefer later found that the lunar eclipse would not have been visible at moonrise due to the brightness of the sky, and the umbra (the part that would be red) would not have been visible before it disappeared a few minutes later.[190][191]
In an edition of the BBC Radio 4 programmed In Our Time entitled Eclipses,Frank Close, Emeritus Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford, stated that certain historical sources say that on the night of the Crucifixion "the moon had risen blood red," which indicates a lunar eclipse. He went on to confirm that as Passover takes place on the full moon calculating back shows that a lunar eclipse did in fact take place on the night of Passover on Friday, 3 April 33 AD which would have been visible in the area of modern Israel, ancient Judaea, just after sunset.[192]
Modern biblical scholarship treats the account in the synoptic gospels as a literary creation by the author of the Mark Gospel, amended in the Luke and Matthew accounts, intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event, and not intended to be taken literally.[193] This image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers, a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such asPhilo,Dio Cassius,Virgil,Plutarch andJosephus.[194]Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as typical of "Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord", and says that those interpreting it as a datable eclipse are "barking up the wrong tree".[195]
Temple veil, earthquake and resurrection of dead saints
The synoptic gospels state that theveil ofthe temple was torn from top to bottom.
The Gospel of Matthew mentions an account of earthquakes, rocks splitting, and the opening of the graves of deadsaints, and describes how these resurrected saints went into the holy city and appeared to many people.[196]
In the Mark and Matthew accounts, thecenturion in charge comments on the events: "Truly this man was the Son of God!"[197] or "Truly this was theSon of God!".[198] The Gospel of Luke quotes him as saying, "Certainly this man was innocent!"[199][200]
The historianSextus Julius Africanus in the early-3rd century wrote, describing the day of the crucifixion, "A most terrible darkness fell over all the world, the rocks were torn apart by an earthquake, and many places both in Judaea and the rest of the world were thrown down. In the third book of his Histories,Thallos dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse. ..."[201]
A widespread earthquake of magnitude at least 5.5 has been confirmed to have taken place in the region between AD 26 and 36. This earthquake was dated by countingvarves (annual layers of sediment) between the disruptions in a core of sediment fromEn Gedi caused by it and by an earlier known quake in 31 BC.[202] The authors concluded that either this was the earthquake in Matthew and it occurred more or less as reported, or else Matthew "borrowed" this earthquake which actually occurred at another time or simply inserted an "allegorical fiction".
A number of theories to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross have been proposed byphysicians and Biblical scholars. In 2006, Matthew W. Maslen and Piers D. Mitchell reviewed over 40 publications on the subject with theories ranging fromcardiac rupture topulmonary embolism.[203]
In 1847, based on the reference in the Gospel of John (John 19:34) to blood and water coming out when Jesus' side was pierced with a spear, physician William Stroud proposed the ruptured heart theory of the cause of Christ's death which influenced a number of other people.[204][205]
The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock. According to this theory, the scourging, the beatings, and the fixing to the cross left Jesus dehydrated, weak, and critically ill and this led to cardiovascular collapse.[206]
In his bookThe Crucifixion of Jesus, physician andforensic pathologistFrederick Zugibe studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail.[209][210] Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner.[211] These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.[211]
Pierre Barbet, a French physician, and the chief surgeon at Saint Joseph's Hospital in Paris,[212] hypothesized that Jesus relaxed his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words, in the face of exhaustion asphyxia.[213] Some of Barbet's theories, such as the location of nails, are disputed by Zugibe.
Orthopedic surgeon Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the crucifixion, but also looked back at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way alongVia Dolorosa.[214][215]
In 2003, historians F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of crucifixion as performed by the Romans and suggested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors. They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred.[216]
Christians believe that Jesus' death was instrumental in restoring humankind torelationship with God.[217][218] Christians believe that through Jesus' death andresurrection[219][220] people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well aseternal life. Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God's presence,love andgrace as well as the confidence of eternal life.[221]
The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background forChristological analysis, from the canonical Gospels to thePauline epistles.[222] Christians believe Jesus' suffering was foretold in the Old Testament, such as inPsalm 22, andIsaiah 53 prophecy of thesuffering servant.[223]
InJohannine "agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory.[224][225] This builds on thesalvific theme of theGospel of John which begins inJohn 1:29 withJohn the Baptist's proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world".[226][227]
A central element in the Christology presented in theActs of the Apostles is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".[228] In this view, as inActs 2:23, the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfillment of the plan of God.[228][229]
Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used inGalatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels.[230] For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significanteschatological consequences, as in1 Corinthians 2:8.[230] In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Philippians 2:8) died "at the right time" (Romans 4:25) based on the plan of God.[230] For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus.[230] Furthermore, Paul highlighted the idea that Jesus on the cross defeated the spiritual forces of evil "Kosmokrator", literally 'the rulers of this world' (used in plural inEphesians 6:12), thus highlighting the idea of victory of light over darkness, or good over evil, through Christ.[231]
Belief in theredemptive nature of Jesus' death predates the Pauline epistles, to the earliest days ofChristianity and theChurch of Jerusalem.[232] TheNicene Creed's statement that "for our sake he was crucified" is a reflection of this core belief's formalization in the 4th century.[233]
John Calvin supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial inPilate's Court Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father.[234][235] This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in theEastern and Western Christianity. In Eastern Christianity,Sergei Bulgakov argued, the crucifixion of Jesus was "pre-eternally" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused bythe fall of Adam.[236] In Western Christianity,Karl Rahner elaborated on the analogy that the blood of theLamb of God (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar tobaptismal water.[237]
Jesus' death and resurrection underpin a variety of theologicalinterpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death and resurrection as compared to Jesus' words.[238] According to thesubstitutionary atonement view, Jesus' death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself after his resurrection as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God.[239] By contrast, themoral influence theory of atonement focuses much more on the moral content of Jesus' teaching, and sees Jesus' death as amartyrdom.[240] Since theMiddle Ages there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity.EvangelicalProtestants typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory ofpenal substitution.Liberal Protestants typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to themoral influence theory of atonement. Both views are popular within theRoman Catholic Church, with thesatisfaction doctrine incorporated into the idea ofpenance.[239]
In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform theActs of Reparation to Jesus Christ[241] which in the encyclicalMiserentissimus Redemptor ofPope Pius XI were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.[242]Pope John Paul II referred to theseacts of reparation as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."[243]
AmongEastern Orthodox Christians, another common view isChristus Victor.[244] This holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death andSatan. Because of hisperfection, voluntary death, and resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through the repentance of sin and faith in Jesus.[245]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the crucifixion of Jesus was part of the atonement and a "redeeming ransom" both for the effect of the fall of Adam upon all humankind and "for the personal sins of all who repent, from Adam to the end of the world."[246]
The Catholic Church denounces the idea ofJewish deicide, believing that all sinners are the authors and ministers of Jesus' crucifixion, and admonishes Christians that their own guilt is greater when they sin with knowledge of Jesus, than when others sin without it.[247][248]
In Christianity,Docetism is the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality.[249] Docetists denied that Jesus could have truly suffered and died, as his physical body was illusory, and instead saw the crucifixion as something that only appeared to happen.[250]
According to theFirst Revelation of James in theNag Hammadi library, Jesus appeared to James after apparently being crucified and stated that another person had been inflicted in his place:
The master appeared to him. He stopped praying, embraced him, and kissed him, saying, "Rabbi, I've found you. I heard of the sufferings you endured, and I was greatly troubled. You know my compassion. Because of this I wished, as I reflected upon it, that I would never see these people again. They must be judged for what they have done, for what they have done is not right."The master said, "James, do not be concerned for me or these people. I am the one who was within me. Never did I suffer at all, and I was not distressed. These people did not harm me. Rather, all this was inflicted upon a figure of the rulers, and it was fitting that this figure should be [destroyed] by them."[251]
Most Islamic traditions categorically deny that Jesus physically died, either on a cross or another manner. This denial is asserted in theQuran, which states:
And [for] their saying, "Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but rather, it was made to appear to them so. And indeed, those who differ over it are in doubt about it. They have no knowledge of it except the following of assumption. And they did not kill him, for certain. (157) Rather, Allah raised him to Himself. And ever is Allah Exalted in Might and Wise. (158)
Islamic traditions teach that Jesusascended to Heaven without being put on the cross, but that God transformed another person to appear exactly like him and to be then crucified instead of him. An ancient antecedent of this view is attested in an account byIrenaeus of the doctrine of the 2nd-centuryAlexandrianGnosticBasilides, in which Irenaeus refutes what he believes to be a heresy denying the death.[253]
Some scriptures identified as Gnostic reject the atonement of Jesus' death by distinguishing the earthly body of Jesus and his divine and immaterial essence. According to theSecond Treatise of the Great Seth,Yaldabaoth (the Creator of the material universe) and hisArchons tried to kill Jesus by crucifixion, but only killedtheir own man (that is the body). While Jesus ascended from his body, Yaldabaoth and his followers thought Jesus to be dead.[254][255] InApocalypse of Peter, Peter talks with the savior whom the "priests and people" believed to have killed.[256]
Manichaeism, which was influenced by Gnostic ideas, adhered to the idea that not Jesus, but somebody else was crucified instead.[257]: 41 Jesus suffering on the cross is depicted as the state oflight particles (spirit) within matter instead.[258]
According toBogomilism, the crucifixion was an attempt byLucifer to destroy Jesus, while the earthly Jesus was regarded as a prophet, Jesus himself was an immaterial being that can not be killed. Accordingly, Lucifer failed and Jesus' sufferings on the cross were only an illusion.[259]
According to someChristian sects in Japan, Jesus Christ did not die on the cross at Golgotha. Instead his younger brother, Isukiri,[260] took his place on the cross, while Jesus fled across Siberia to Mutsu Province, in northern Japan. Once in Japan, he became a rice farmer, married, and raised a family with three daughters near what is nowShingō. While in Japan, it is asserted that he traveled, learned, and eventually died at the age of 106. His body was exposed on a hilltop for four years. According to the customs of the time, Jesus' bones were collected, bundled, and buried in a mound.[261][262] There is also a museum in Japan which claims to have evidence of these claims.[263]
InYazidism, Jesus is thought of as a "figure of light" who could not be crucified. This interpretation could be either taken from the Quran or Gnostics.[264]
Thesymbolism of the cross which is today one of the most widely recognized Christian symbols was used from the earliest Christian times.Justin Martyr, who died in 165, describes it in a way that already implies its use as a symbol, although thecrucifix appeared later.[265][266]
Devotions based on the process of crucifixion, and the sufferings of Jesus are followed by various Christians. TheStations of the Cross follows a number of stages based on the stages involved in the crucifixion of Jesus, while theRosary of the Holy Wounds is used to meditate on the wounds of Jesus as part of the crucifixion.
The presence of the Virgin Mary under the cross, mentioned in the Gospel of John,[269] has in itself been the subject ofMarian art, and well known Catholic symbolism such as theMiraculous Medal andPope John Paul II's Coat of Arms bearing aMarian Cross. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g., Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross".[270][271] Well known works of Christian art by masters such asRaphael (theMond Crucifixion), andCaravaggio (The Entombment of Christ) depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene.
Dunn (2003, p. 339) states that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.
Crossan (1995, p. 145): "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.
Eddy & Boyd (2007, p. 127) state that it is now "firmly established" that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.
^Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 172. "...if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion..
^Haight, Roger. "Jesus and Salvation: An Essay in Interpretation." Theological Studies, vol. 55, no. 2, 1994, pp. 227–250.[1]
^Byrskog, Samuel (2011). "The Historicity of Jesus: How do we now that Jesus existed?".Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus (Volume 3). Brill. p. 2190.ISBN978-9004163720.
^abDavies, W. D.; Sanders, E.P. (2008). "20. Jesus: From the Jewish Point of View". In Horbury, William; Davies, W.D.; Sturdy, John (eds.).The Cambridge History of Judaism. Volume 3: The Early Roman period. Cambridge Univiversity Press. p. 621.ISBN9780521243773.The approximate period of his death (c. CE 30, plus or minus one or two years) is confirmed by the requirements of the chronology of Paul.
^abIn verse 19:17 and 19:18, only a third person plural verb is used ("they"), it is not clear whether this refers to the high priests (οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς) to whom Pilate delivered Jesus in 19:15–16, or to the soldiers (οὖν στρατιῶται) who crucified Jesus according to 19:23.
^In some manuscripts of Luke, these words are omitted. AnnotationNieuwe Bijbelvertaling (2004).
^abBased on other Biblical verses, it is often concluded that this Mary wasJesus' own mother, and that James and Joses/Joseph were his brothers, seebrothers of Jesus.
^abcEvidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian by Ute Possekel 1999ISBN90-429-0759-2 pp. 29–30
^abStudying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research edited by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998ISBN90-04-11142-5 pp. 455–457
^abThe Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009ISBN978-0-8054-4365-3 p. 110
^abJesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence by Robert E. Van Voorst 2000ISBN0-8028-4368-9 pp. 53–55
^Evans, Craig A. (2001).Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies. p. 41.ISBN978-0-391-04118-9.
^abVan Voorst, Robert E (2000).Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing.ISBN0-8028-4368-9. pp. 39–42.
^Ferguson, Everett (2003).Backgrounds of Early Christianity.ISBN0-8028-2221-5. p. 116.
^Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during theEucharist rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References:Ancient Rome by William E. Dunstan 2010ISBN0-7425-6833-4 p. 293 andAn introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002ISBN0-521-00720-8 p. 485
^Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation by Helen K. Bond 2004ISBN0-521-61620-4 p. xi
^Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer (2009)ISBN0-691-14318-8 pp. 141 and 9
^Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000).Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. pp. 177–118.ISBN0-8028-4368-9.
^Barber, Michael (2020). "Did Jesus Anticipate Suffering a Violent Death?: The Implications of Memory Research and Dale C. Allison's Methodology".Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus.18 (3):191–219.doi:10.1163/17455197-01803002.
^Ferda, Tucker (2024).Jesus and His Promised Second Coming: Jewish Eschatology and Christian Origins. Eerdmans. p. 47.ISBN9780802879905.
^Lémonon, J.P. (1981).Pilate et le gouvernement de la Judée: textes et monuments, Études bibliques. Paris: Gabalda. pp. 29–32.
^Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" inChronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989ISBN0-931464-50-1 pp. 113–129
^Fotheringham, J.K. (1934). "The evidence of astronomy and technical chronology for the date of the crucifixion".Journal of Theological Studies.35 (138):146–162.doi:10.1093/jts/os-XXXV.138.146.
^The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009ISBN978-0-8054-4365-3 pp. 142–143
^Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Volume 7 John McClintock, James Strong – 1894 "... he lay in the grave on the 15th (which was a 'high day' or double Sabbath, because the weekly Sabbath coincided ..."
^Niswonger, Richard L. (1992).New Testament History. Zondervan. pp. 173–174.ISBN0-310-31201-9.
^Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott (2009).The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. p. 538.ISBN978-0-8054-4365-3.
^Eucherius of Lyon."Letter to the Presbyter Faustus". Archived fromthe original on June 13, 2008.The three more frequented exit gates are one on the west, another on the east, and a third on the north. As you enter the city from the northern side, the first of the holy places due to the condition of the directions of the streets is to the church which is called the Martyrium, which was by Constantine with great reverence not long ago built up. Next, to the west one visits the connecting places Golgotha and the Anastasis; indeed the Anastasis is in the place of the resurrection, and Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was. These are separated places outside of Mount Sion, where the failing rise of the place extended itself to the north.
^abHenry George Liddell; Robert Scott."σταυρός".A Greek–English Lexicon.Archived from the original on March 7, 2008. RetrievedFebruary 20, 2021 – viaTufts University.
^What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watch Tower Society. 2005. pp. 51,201–204.
^For a discussion of the date of the work, seeInformation on Epistle of BarnabasArchived March 16, 2010, at theWayback Machine and Andrew C. Clark, "Apostleship: Evidence from the New Testament and Early Christian Literature,"Evangelical Review of Theology, 1989, Vol. 13, p. 380
^"The Spirit saith to the heart of Moses, that he shouldmake a type of the cross and of Him that was to suffer, that unless, saith He, they shall set their hope on Him, war shall be waged against them for ever. Moses therefore pileth arms one upon another in the midst of the encounter, and standing on higher ground than anyhe stretched out his hands, and so Israel was again victorious" (Epistle of Barnabas, 12:2–3).
^John Haralson Hayes,Biblical Exegesis: A Beginner's Handbook (Westminster John Knox Press, 1987) pp. 104–105. The author suggests this possibly was designed to play down the suffering of Jesus and replace a cry of desperation with one of hope and confidence, in keeping with the message of the Gospel in which Jesus dies confident that he would be vindicated as God's righteous prophet.
^David Anderson-Berry, 1871The Seven Sayings of Christ on the Cross, Glasgow: Pickering & Inglis Publishers
^Rev. John Edmunds, 1855The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, p. 26
^Arthur Pink, 2005The Seven Sayings of the Saviour on the Cross Baker BooksISBN0-8010-6573-9
^Simon Peter Long, 1966The wounded Word: A brief meditation on the seven sayings of Christ on the cross Baker Books
^John Ross Macduff, 1857The Words of Jesus New York: Thomas Stanford Publishers, p. 76
^Alexander Watson, 1847The seven sayings on the Cross John Masters Publishers, London, p. 5. The difference between the accounts is cited byJames Dunn as a reason to doubt their historicity. James G. D. Dunn,Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) pp. 779–781.
^Donaldson, Coxe (1888).The ante-Nicene fathers. Vol. 6. New York: The Christian Literature Publishing Co. p. 136.Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. RetrievedNovember 28, 2015.
^"In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn, when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze. Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ, no doubt thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives."Tertullian."Apologeticum".Archived from the original on April 6, 2022. RetrievedMay 5, 2008.
^Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington,The Date of the Crucifixion Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985).
^Burton L. Mack,A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian Origins (Fortress Press, 1988) p. 296; George Bradford Caird,The language and imagery of the Bible (Westminster Press, 1980), p. 186; Joseph Fitzmyer,The Gospel According to Luke, X–XXIV (Doubleday, 1985) p. 1513; William David Davies, Dale Allison,Matthew: Volume 3 (Continuum, 1997) p. 623.
^David E. Garland,Reading Matthew: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the First Gospel (Smyth & Helwys Publishing, 1999) p. 264.
^Géza Vermes,The Passion (Penguin, 2005) pp. 108–109.
^Medical theories on the cause of death in Crucifixion J R Soc Med April 2006 vol. 99 no. 4 185–188.[2]Archived September 12, 2015, at theWayback Machine
^William Stroud, 1847,Treatise on the Physical Death of Jesus Christ London: Hamilton and Adams.
^Seymour, William (2003).The Cross in Tradition, History and Art.ISBN0-7661-4527-1.
^The Physical Death Of Jesus Christ, Study by The Mayo ClinicArchived January 31, 2009, at theWayback Machine citing studies by Bucklin R (The legal and medical aspects of the trial and death of Christ.Sci Law 1970; 10:14–26), Mikulicz-Radeeki FV (The chest wound in the crucified Christ.Med News 1966; 14:30–40), Davis CT (The Crucifixion of Jesus: The passion of Christ from a medical point of view.Ariz Med 1965; 22:183–187), and Barbet P (A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon, Earl of Wicklow (trans) Garden City, NY, Doubleday Image Books 1953, pp. 12–18, 37–147, 159–175, 187–208).
^Edwards, William D.; Gabel, Wesley J.; Hosmer, Floyd E;On the Physical Death of Jesus, JAMA March 21, 1986, Vol 255, No. 11, pp. 1455–1463[3]Archived January 26, 2022, at theWayback Machine
^Frederick Zugibe, 2005,The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry Evans Publishing,ISBN1-59077-070-6
^JW Hewitt,The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion Harvard Theological Review, 1932
^Retief, FP; Cilliers, L. (December 2003)."The history and pathology of crucifixion".South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde.93 (12):938–841.PMID14750495.Archived from the original on April 14, 2021. RetrievedNovember 3, 2018.
^Meyer, Marvin; Robinson, James (2009). "The First revelation of James".The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: The Revised and Updated Translation of Sacred Gnostic Texts Complete in One Volume (2009 ed.). HarperOne.ISBN978-0061626005.
^"Wherefore he did not himself suffer death, but Simon, a certain man of Cyrene, being compelled, bore the cross in his stead; so that this latter being transfigured by him, that he might be thought to be Jesus, was crucified, through ignorance and error, while Jesus himself received the form of Simon, and, standing by, laughed at them. For since he was an incorporeal power, and the Nous (mind) of the unborn father, he transfigured himself as he pleased, and thus ascended to him who had sent him, deriding them, inasmuch as he could not be laid hold of, and was invisible to all" (Irenaeus,Against Heresies, book I, ch. 24, 4Archived April 19, 2021, at theWayback Machine).
^Turner, John Douglas; McGuire, Anne Marie (1997).The Nag Hammadi Library After Fifty Years: Proceedings of the 1995 Society of Biblical Literature Commemoration [in Philadelphia]. Brill. p. 54.ISBN978-9004108240.
^Tuomas RasimusParadise Reconsidered in Gnostic Mythmaking: Rethinking Sethianism in Light of the Ophite Evidence Brill, 2009ISBN978-9047426707 p. 13
^Turner, John Douglas; McGuire, Anne Marie (1997).The Nag Hammadi Library After Fifty Years: Proceedings of the 1995 Society of Biblical Literature Commemoration [in Philadelphia]. Brill. p. 55.ISBN978-9004108240.
^Gil, Moshe (1992). "The Creed of Abū 'Āmir". In Joel L. Kraemer (ed.).Israel Oriental Studies. Vol. 12. pp. 9–58.
^Willis Barnstone, Marvin MeyerThe Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009ISBN978-0-834-82414-0 p. 596
^Willis Barnstone, Marvin MeyerThe Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009ISBN978-0-834-82414-0 p. 751
^Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft. Jahrgang 1997 diagonal-Verlag Ursula Spuler-Stegemann Der Engel Pfau zum Selbstvertändnis der Yezidi p. 14 (German)
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![Crucified Jesus at the Ytterselö church [sv], Sweden, c. 1500](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJesus_Tkors_Ytterselo01.gif)
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