The Cree are generally divided into eight groups based on dialect and region. These divisions do not necessarily represent ethnic subdivisions within the larger ethnic group:
Naskapi andMontagnais (together known as theInnu) are inhabitants of an area they refer to asNitassinan. Their territories comprise most of the present-day political jurisdictions of eastern Quebec and Labrador. Their cultures are differentiated, as some of the Naskapi are stillcaribou hunters, and morenomadic than many of the Montagnais; the Montagnais have more permanent settlements. The total population of the two groups (in 2003) was about 18,000 people, of which approx. 15,000 were in Quebec. Their dialects and languages are the most distinct from the Cree spoken by the groups west of Lake Superior.
Atikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to asNitaskinan ("Our Land"), in the upperSaint-Maurice River valley of Quebec (about 300 km or 190 mi north ofMontreal). Their population is around 8,000.
Swampy Cree – this group lives innorthern Manitoba, along theHudson Bay coast, and adjacent inland areas to the south and west, as well as in Ontario, along the coasts of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Some also live in eastern Saskatchewan, aroundCumberland House. Their dialect has 4,500 speakers.
Plains Cree – a total of about 34,000 people in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Montana, USA.
Due to the many dialects of theCree language, the people have no modern collectiveautonym. The Plains Cree and Attikamekw refer to themselves using modern forms of the historicalnêhiraw, namelynêhiyaw andnêhirawisiw, respectively. The Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Montagnais all refer to themselves using modern dialectal forms of the historicaliriniw, meaning 'man.' Moose Cree use the formililiw, coastal East Cree and Naskapi useiyiyiw (variously spellediiyiyiu,iiyiyuu, andeeyou), inland East Cree useiyiniw (variously spellediinuu andeenou), and Montagnais useilnu andinnu, depending on dialect. The Cree use "Cree", "cri", "Naskapi, or "montagnais" to refer to their people only when speakingFrench orEnglish.[11]
nēhiyaw (Plains Cree) camp near the future site ofVermilion, Alberta, in 1871
Ashunter-gatherers, the basic units of organization for Cree peoples were the "lodge", a group of perhaps eight to a dozen people, usually the families of two separate, but related, married couples living together in the samewigwam (domed tent) ortipi (conical tent), and theband, a group of lodges who moved and hunted together. In the case of disagreement, lodges could leave bands, and bands could be formed and dissolved with relative ease. However, as there is safety in numbers, all families would want to be part of some band, andbanishment or exile was considered a very serious punishment. Bands would usually have strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Other than these regional gatherings, there was no higher-level formal structure, and decisions of war and peace were made by consensus, with allied bands meeting together in-council. People could be identified by theirclan, which is a group of people claiming descent from the same common ancestor; each clan would have a representative and a vote in all important councils held by the band (compare:Anishinaabe clan system).[12]
Each band remained independent of each other. However, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and with their neighbours against outside enemies. Those Cree who moved onto theGreat Plains and adoptedbison hunting, called the Plains Cree, were allied with theAssiniboine, the Metis Nation, and theSaulteaux in what was known as the "Iron Confederacy", which was a major force in theNorth American fur trade from the 1730s to the 1870s. The Cree and the Assiniboine were important intermediaries in theIndian trading networks on the northern plains.[3]
When a band went to war, they would nominate a temporary military commander, called aokimahkan, loosely translated as "war chief". This office was different from that of the "peace chief", a leader who had a role more like that of diplomat. In the run-up to the 1885North-West Rebellion,Big Bear was the leader of his band, but once the fighting startedWandering Spirit became war leader.
There have been several attempts to create a national political organization that would represent all Cree peoples, at least as far back as a 1994 gathering at the Opaskwayak Cree First Nation reserve.[13]
The name "Cree" is derived from theAlgonkian-languageexonymKirištino˙, which theOjibwa used for tribes aroundHudson Bay. The French colonists and explorers, who spelled the termKilistinon,Kiristinon,Knisteneaux,[14][15]Cristenaux, andCristinaux, used the term for numerous tribes which they encountered north of Lake Superior, in Manitoba, and west of there.[16] The French used these terms to refer to various groups of peoples in Canada, some of which are now better distinguished as SevernAnishinaabe (Ojibwa), who speak dialects different from the Algonquin.[17]
Depending on the community, the Cree may call themselves by the following names: thenēhiyawak, nīhithaw, nēhilaw, andnēhinaw; orininiw, ililiw, iynu (innu), oriyyu. These names are derived from the historicalautonymnēhiraw (of uncertain meaning) or from the historical autonymiriniw (meaning "person"). Cree using the latter autonym tend to be those living in the territories of Quebec and Labrador.[11] Alternative names include Inninu and Inninuwuk.
The Cree language (also known in the most broad classification as Cree-Montagnais, Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi, to show the groups included within it) is the name for a group of closely relatedAlgonquian languages,[3] the mother tongue (i.e. language first learned and still understood) of approximately 96,000 people, and the language most often spoken at home of about 65,000 people across Canada, from theNorthwest Territories toLabrador. It is the most widely spokenaboriginal language in Canada.[18] The only region where Cree hasofficial status is in the Northwest Territories, together with eight other aboriginal languages, French and English.[19][20]
The two major groups: nehiyaw and Innu, speak a mutually intelligible Creedialect continuum, which can be divided by many criteria. In a dialect continuum, "It is not so much a language, as a chain of dialects, where speakers from one community can very easily understand their neighbours, but a Plains Cree speaker from Alberta would find a Quebec Cree speaker difficult to speak to without practice."[21]
One major division between the groups is that the Eastern grouppalatalizes the sound/k/ to either/ts/ (c) or to/tʃ/ (č) when it precedesfront vowels. There is also a major difference in grammatical vocabulary (particles) between the groups. Within both groups, another set of variations has arisen around the pronunciation of theProto-Algonquianphoneme*l, which can be realized as/l/,/r/,/y/,/n/, or/ð/ (th) by different groups. Yet in other dialects, the distinction between/eː/ (ē) and/iː/ (ī) has been lost, merging to the latter. In more western dialects, the distinction between/s/ and/ʃ/ (š) has been lost, both merging to the former. "Cree is a not a typologically harmonic language. Cree has both prefixes and suffixes, both prepositions and postpositions, and both prenominal and postnominal modifiers (e.g. demonstratives can appear in both positions)."[22]
Golla counts Cree dialects as eight of 55 North American languages that have more than 1,000 speakers and which are being actively acquired by children.[23]
The Cree are the largest group ofFirst Nations in Canada, with 220,000 members and 135 registered bands.[24] Together, their reserve lands are the largest of any First Nations group in the country.[24] The largest Cree band and the second largest First Nations Band in Canada after the Six NationsIroquois is theLac La Ronge Band in northern Saskatchewan.
Given the traditional Cree acceptance of mixed marriages, it is acknowledged by academics that all bands are ultimately of mixed heritage and multilingualism and multiculturalism was the norm. In the West, mixed bands of Cree, Saulteaux, Métis, and Assiniboine, all partners in theIron Confederacy, are the norm. However, in recent years, as indigenous languages have declined across western Canada where there were once three languages spoken on a given reserve, there may now only be one. This has led to a simplification of identity, and it has become "fashionable" for bands in many parts of Saskatchewan to identify as "Plains Cree" at the expense of a mixed Cree-Salteaux history. There is also a tendency for bands to recategorize themselves as "Plains Cree" instead of Woods Cree or Swampy Cree. Neal McLeod argues this is partly due to the dominant culture's fascination withPlains Indian culture as well as the greater degree of writtenstandardization andprestige Plains Cree enjoys over other Cree dialects.[13]
TheMétis[25] (from the French,Métis – of mixed ancestry) are people of mixed ancestry, such as Cree and French, English, orScottish heritage. According toAboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, the Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Cree women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and Cree, Northwestern Ojibwe, or northernDene women (Anglo-Métis). The Métis National Council defines a Métis as "a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation".[26]
Group of Cree people
Merasty women and girls, Cree, The Pas,Manitoba, 1942
In Manitoba, the Cree were first contacted by Europeans in 1682, at the mouth of the Nelson and Hayes rivers by aHudson's Bay Company (HBC) party traveling about 100 miles (160 km) inland. In the south, in 1732; in what is now northwestern Ontario,Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, met with an assembled group of 200 Cree warriors near present-dayFort Frances, as well as with the Monsoni,[28] (a branch of theOjibwe). Both groups had donned war paint in preparation to an attack on theDakota and another group of Ojibwe.[29]
After acquiring firearms from the HBC, the Cree moved as traders into the plains, acting as middlemen with the HBC.[citation needed]
The Naskapi are the Innu First Nations inhabiting a region of northeasternQuebec andLabrador, Canada. The Naskapi are traditionally nomadic peoples, in contrast with the territorial Montagnais, the other segment of Innu. The Naskapi language and culture is quite different from the Montagnais, in which the dialect changes from y to n as in "Iiyuu" versus "Innu".Iyuw Iyimuun is the Innu dialect spoken by the Naskapi.[30] Today, the Naskapi are settled into two communities:Kawawachikamach Quebec andNatuashish, Newfoundland and Labrador.
Innu Takuaikan Uashat Mak Mani-Utenam based in Sept-Îles, Quebec, in theCôte-Nord region on the Saint Lawrence River.[36] They own two reserves: Maliotenam 27A, 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) east of Sept-Îles, and Uashat 27, within Sept-Îles.[37]
Innue Essipit are based in their reserve ofEssipit, adjacent to the village ofLes Escoumins, Quebec. The community is on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River at the mouth of the Escoumins River in theCôte-Nord region, 40 km (25 mi) northeast ofTadoussac and 250 km (160 mi) northeast ofQuébec.[47]
Atikamekw of Manawan are based inManawan, Quebec, on the south-western shores of Lake Métabeskéga in theLanaudière region. The reserve is located 165 km (103 mi) by road northeast ofMont-Laurier or 250 km (160 mi) north of Montreal.[51]
Eastmain (Cree Nation) is located atEastmain VC andEastmain TC is the reserve. The Nation is located on the east coast of James Bay at the mouth of theEastmain River.[57] Eastmain is 619 km (385 mi) northwest of Chibougamau via theRoute du Nord and the James Bay Road.[58]
Cree Nation of Nemaska is headquartered atNemaska VC and its reserve isNemaska TC located on the western shores of Lake Champion.[60] The village is theseat of the Grand Council of the Crees.[61] Nemaska is 333 km (207 mi) northwest of Chibougamau, at km 300 of theRoute du Nord.[62]
Oujé-Bougoumou Cree Nation is located in the Cree village ofOujé-Bougoumou on the shores ofOpémisca Lake. Unlike the other Nations of Eeyou Istchee, Oujé-Bougoumou does not have an associated reserve.[63] The village is 60 km (37 mi) due west of Chibougamau.
Cree Nation of Wemindji is headquartered atWemindji VC and its reserve isWemindji TC.[68] The village is on the east coast of James Bay at the mouth of the Maquatua River and is 696 km (432 mi) north of Chibougamau via theRoute du Nord.
First Nation of Whapmagoostui located atWhapmagoostui VC, is the northernmost Cree village, located at the mouth of theGreat Whale River on the coast of Hudson Bay in Kativik TE. The village is just south of the river while the Inuit village ofKuujjuarapik is on the north shore.[69]
Cree Nation of Washaw Sibi was recognized as the tenth Cree Nation Community at the 2003 Annual General Assembly of the Cree Nation.[70][71] The Nation does not yet have a community or reserve recognized by either the Canadian or Quebec governments but the Nation has chosen an area about 40 minutes' drive south of Matagami.[72]
Mushkegowuk Council, based inMoose Factory, Ontario, represents chiefs from seven First Nations across Ontario. Swampy Cree members are:Fort Albany First Nation andAttawapiskat First Nation.[75] Fort Albany First Nation is located at Fort Albany, Ontario, on the southern shore of the Albany River at James Bay.[90] The reserve, Fort Albany 67, is shared with the Kashechewan First Nation.[91] The Attawapiskat First Nation is located at mouth of theAttawapiskat River on James Bay.[92] The community is on the Attawapiskat 91A reserve. The Attawapiskat 91 reserve is 27,000 hectares (67,000 acres) on both shores of theEkwan River, 165 kilometres (103 mi) upstream from the mouth on James Bay.[93]
Independent from a Tribal Council is theWeenusk First Nation located inPeawanuck in the Kenora District.[94] The community was located on their reserve ofWinisk 90 on the mouth of theWinisk River on James Bay[95] but the community was destroyed in the1986 Winisk flood and the community had to be relocated to Peawanuck.[96]
Keewatin Tribal Council is a Tribal Council based inThompson, Manitoba that represents eleven First Nations, of which five are Swampy Cree, across northern Manitoba.[97]Fox Lake Cree Nation is based inGillam, 248 kilometres (154 mi) northeast of Thompson viaProvincial Road 280 (PR 280), and has several reserves along theNelson River.[98]Shamattawa First Nation is located on their reserve, Shamattawa 1,[99] on the banks of theGods River where theEchoing River joins. The community is very remote; only connected via air or via winter ice roads to other First Nation communities. TheTataskweyak Cree Nation is located in the community ofSplit Lake, Manitoba within the Split Lake 171 reserve, 144 kilometres (89 mi) northeast of Thompson on PR 280, on thelake of the same name on the Nelson River system.[100]War Lake First Nation possess several reserves but are located on the Mooseocoot reserve in the community ofIlford, Manitoba, 35 kilometres (22 mi) east of York Landing.[101]York Factory First Nation is based on the reserve of York Landing, 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Split Lake via ferry.[102]York Factory was a settlement and Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) trading post, established in 1684, on the shore of Hudson Bay, at the mouth of theHayes River.[103] In 1956, the trading post was closed and the community was moved inland to the current site.[104]
Swampy Cree Tribal Council is, as the name suggests, a tribal council of seven Swampy Cree First Nations across northern Manitoba and is based inThe Pas.[105] TheChemawawin Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) are based on their reserve Chemawawin 2, adjacent toEasterville, Manitoba, 200 kilometres (120 mi) southeast of The Pas.[106]Mathias Colomb First Nation (also Rocky Cree) is located in the community ofPukatawagan on the Pukatawagan 198 reserve.[107]Misipawistik Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) is located nearGrand Rapids, Manitoba, 400 kilometres (250 mi) north of Winnipeg at the mouth of theSaskatchewan River as it runs into Lake Winnipeg.[108]Mosakahiken Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) is located around the community ofMoose Lake about 63 kilometres (39 mi) southeast of The Pas on their main reserve, Moose Lake 31A.[109]Opaskwayak Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) has several reserves but most of the population lives on the Opaskwayak 21E reserve, immediately north of and across the Saskatchewan River from The Pas.[110] TheSapotaweyak Cree Nation is located in the Shoal River 65A reserve adjacent to the community ofPelican Rapids, about 82 kilometres (51 mi) south of The Pas.[111]Wuskwi Sipihk First Nation has several reserves but the main reserve is Swan Lake 65C which contains the settlement of Indian Birch, about 150 kilometres (93 mi) south of The Pas.[112]
The Keewatin Tribal Council, described under Swampy Cree, also represents Rocky Cree First Nations in Manitoba.[128] TheBarren Lands First Nation is located on the north shore ofReindeer Lake close to the Saskatchewan border. It has one reserve, Brochet 197, 256 kilometres (159 mi) northwest of Thompson, adjoining the village ofBrochet.[129] TheBunibonibee Cree Nation is located along the eastern shoreline ofOxford Lake at the headwaters of theHayes River. The Nation controls several reserves with the main reserve being Oxford House 24 adjacent to the community ofOxford House, Manitoba, 160 kilometres (99 mi) southeast of Thompson.[130]God's Lake First Nation is located in theGod's Lake Narrows area on the shore ofGod's Lake. The main reserve is God's Lake 23, 240 kilometres (150 mi) southeast of Thompson.[131] TheManto Sipi Cree Nation also live on God's Lake in the community of God's River on the God's River 86A reserve,[132] about 42 kilometres (26 mi) northeast of God's Lake Narrows. All of the Rocky Cree communities of Keewatin Tribal Council are remote; only connected via air and ice road during winter months.
TheBigstone Cree Nation is based inWabasca, Alberta, about 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Slave Lake, on theWabasca 166A reserve.[150] The Nation is not associated with a Tribal Council.[151] The Bigstone Cree Nation was divided into two bands in 2010, with one group continuing under the former name, and the other becoming thePeerless Trout First Nation.[152]
TheMikisew Cree First Nation is based in the community ofFort Chipewyan on the western tip ofLake Athabasca, approximately 225 kilometres (140 mi) north of Fort McMurray.[169] They are not a member of a Tribal Council.[170] Fort Chipewyan, one of the oldest European settlements in Alberta, was established in 1788 by theNorth West Company as a fur trading post.[171]
Interlake Reserves Tribal Council is a tribal council based in Fairford, Manitoba. The council has six Nations as members but the only Cree member isPeguis First Nation.[190]
Papaschase First Nation, removed from land that now makes up southeast Edmonton, were a party to Treaty 6 but are not recognized by the Canadian government.
The Cree use the pitch ofAbies balsamea for menstrual irregularity, and take an infusion of the bark and sometimes the wood for coughs. They use the pitch and grease used as an ointment for scabies and boils. They apply apoultice of pitch applied to cuts. They also use a decoction of pitch and sturgeon oil used fortuberculosis, and take an infusion of bark for tuberculosis. They also use the boughs to make brush shelters and use the wood to make paddles.[207]
TheWoods Cree make use ofRibes glandulosum using adecoction of the stem, either by itself or mixed with wild red raspberry, to prevent clotting after birth, eat the berries as food, and use the stem to make a bitter tea.[209] They make use ofVaccinium myrtilloides, using adecoction of leafy stems used to bring menstruation and prevent pregnancy, to make a person sweat, to slow excessive menstrual bleeding, to bring blood after childbirth, and to prevent miscarriage. They also use the berries to dye porcupine quills, eat the berries raw, make them into jam and eat it with fish and bannock, and boil or pound the sun-dried berries intopemmican.[210] They use the berries of theminus subspecies ofVaccinium myrtilloides to colour porcupine quills, and put the firm, ripe berries on a string to wear as a necklace.[211] They also incorporate the berries of theminus subspecies ofVaccinium myrtilloides into their cuisine. They store the berries by freezing them outside during the winter, mix the berries with boiled fish eggs, livers, air bladders and fat and eat them, eat the berries raw as a snack food, and stew them with fish or meat.[211]
Robert Falcon Ouellette, A Cree Member of Parliament, played a pivotal role in promoting Indigenous languages including C-91 within Canada.[213][214][215]
^Greeberg, Adolph M.; Morrison, James (1982). "Group Identities in the Boreal Forest: The Origin of the Northern Ojibwa".Ethnohistory.29 (2):75–102.doi:10.2307/481370.JSTOR481370.
^"Languages Overview".Indigenous Languages and Education Secretariat. Government of Northwest Territories. Retrieved27 October 2019.
^"Languages of Canada".Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved21 September 2008. Note: The western group of languages includes Swampy Cree, Woods Cree and Plains Cree. The eastern language is called Moose Cree.
^"Cree".Language Geek. Archived fromthe original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved21 September 2008.
^Leighton, Anna L., 1985, Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Central Saskatchewan, Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series, page 21
^Holmes, E.M. 1884 Medicinal Plants Used by Cree Indians, Hudson's Bay Territory. The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions 15:302–304 (p. 303)
^Leighton, Anna L. 1985 Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Central Saskatchewan. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series (p. 54)
^Leighton, Anna L., 1985, Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Central Saskatchewan, Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series, page 63
^abLeighton, Anna L., 1985, Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Central Saskatchewan, Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series, page 64
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