Corsairs of Algiers
The Tai'fa of Raïs
A Corsair of Algiers
Active	1516–1830
Disbanded	De jure 1830
Country	Regency of Algiers (part of theOttoman Empire)
Allegiance	Wakil al-Kharadj, or minister of the navy of Algiers and foreign affairs, Kapudan-reïs, "admiral, hierarchical chief of all the reïs"
Main location	Algiers
Equipment	Yatagan,Nimcha,Kabyle musket, and other locally made weapons
Engagements	Algiers expedition (1541) Battle of Lepanto (1571) Odjak of Algiers Revolution Anglo-Algerian War French-Algerian War 1681–88 Invasion of Algiers (1775) American–Algerian War (1785–1795) Battle off Cape Gata (1815) Bombardment of Algiers (1816) Invasion of Algiers in 1830
Commanders
Notable commanders	Oruç Reis Hayreddin Barbarossa Occhiali Jan Janszoon Ali Bitchin Mezzo Morto Hüseyin Pasha Raïs Hamidou

Theta'ifa of raïs (Arabic:طائفة الريس,community of corsair captains) or theRaïs for short, wereBarbary pirates based inOttoman Algeria who were involved inpiracy and theslave trade in theMediterranean Sea from the 16th to the 19th century. They were an ethnically mixed group of seafarers, including mostly "renegades" from European provinces of theMediterranean and theNorth Sea, along with a minority of Turks and Moors. Such crews were experienced in naval combat, making Algiers a formidable pirate base. Its activity was directed against theSpanish empire, but it did not neglect the coasts ofSicily,Sardinia,Naples orProvence. It was thetaifa which, through its seizures, maintained the prosperity of Algiers and its finances.

The corsairtaifa of Algiers reached the zenith of its power in the first half of the seventeenth century as an Ottoman military elite, theoritically. Up until 1626, the Algerian corsair admiral (Kapudan-rais) was invested by theOttoman sultan and subordinate to theKapudan Pasha of the Ottoman empire. Often former Christian slaves were promoted up theta'ifa chain of command, the admirals and their corsairs were a powerful military and political force in the regency of Algiers, and could even challenge the authority of thePasha and theOdjak Janissary corps.

The establishment of theRegency of Algiers by the Barbarossa brothers gave the Muslimcorso a solid territorial base, which was organized in its beginnings for self-defence as well asholy war; described as al-jihad fi'l-bahr (holy war at sea) against theSpanish Empire and theChristian Knights who continued the work of thecrusades.^[1] In the days ofHayreddin Barbarossa and his immediate successors, theraïs were an integral part of the Ottoman navy, but by the 17th century they had become a distinct group.^[2] Unlike inOttoman Tunisia, where privateers were allowed to equip their own pirate ships, piracy in Ottoman Algeria was a monopoly of the state. TheKapudan-raïs (admiral, hierarchical chief of all thereïs), or captain of vessels, was often, after the Pasha, the most important person in the Diwan of Algiers.^[3] Thus, the corso became a permanent institution in the Regency of Algiers, and its main income was included in the state budget. Enriching those who cared for it and returning to the treasury one-fifth of its takings, the corso effectively created the state of Algiers,^[4] and was essential to its existence, which all the efforts of the government tended to develop. It was also the activity upon which the economical and political prosperity of the Odjak as well as its religious prestige to a great extent depended.^[5]

European authors continued to view the Ottoman regencies as 'dens of pirates' and their actions as "African banditry", but France, the Dutch Republic and England all concluded peace treaties with the North African regencies in the 17th century. These treaties prompted legal theorists in Europe to change their views about the general status of the regencies.Hugo Grotius implicitly admitted that Algiers exercised theJus ad bellum of a sovereign power through its corsairs. The treaties were also influential in the development of thelaw of the sea andthe Law of Nations.^[6][7]

Irish lawyerCharles Molloy wrote in 1682 regarding those shifts in dealing with: "Pirates that have reduced themselves into a Government of State, as those of Algier, Sally, Tripoli, Tunis, and the like" and should not "obtain the rights of solemnities of war." He added:^[8][9]

Tunis and Tripoli and their Sister Algier do at this day (though Nests of Pirates) obtain the right of Legation' demonstrated by the treaties concluded by Britain with Tunis and Tripoli. This makes them not Pirates (enemies of mankind) but gives them the status of enemies (in war): So that now (though indeed Pirates) yet having acquired the reputation of a Government, they cannot properly be esteemed Pirates but Enemies.

In 1737, Dutchjurist and legal theoristCornelius van Bynkershoek wrote:

The peoples of Algiers, Tripoli, Tunis, and Salee are not pirates, but rather organized states, which have a fixed territory in which there is an established government, and with which, as with other nations, we [i.e.the Staten-General] are now at peace, now at war. Hence they seem to be entitled to the rights of independent states.

Thus, the:corso acquired both religious and legitimate dimensions, which in turn gave it an international dimension that negated the faithless and lawless nature of piracy upon Algerian and other barbary corsairs.^[10]

French historian Dianel Panzac, although admitting that the Barbary corsairs hardly differed in their methods from pirates that were still distinguishable by their"black flag, uncertain nationality, the vandalising of the ship, and especially the killing of the crew in order to leave no trace", nevertheless respected the administrative and diplomatic frameworks that North African regencies were bounded with, which is why the Barbary warships were classified as privateering vessels and not pirate ships.^[11]

The Ottoman sultan issued afirman (royal decree) appointing a ruler to govern Algiers. This governor might hold the rank of beylerbey, then pasha, and his initial appointment was usually for three years, after which it could be extended or cancelled. The sultan expected obedience from the ruler, particularly in matters of foreign policy; an annual financial tribute to Istanbul; and ships and men for his fleets when they were demanded. Otherwise the ruler was given a free hand to govern as he saw fit.^[12] In practice, therais and the Odjak acted autonomously and the pasha gradually lost his power.^[13] After theOdjak revolution in 1659, the ruler was elected and the sultan only confirmed this election as a sign of its legitimacy, without however having any effective rule over Algiers.^[14]

The Regency government became a naval power, and turned its main activities towards the sea. From the 16th century on, the growing volume of international trade, the succession of political crises leading to armed conflicts, the territorial appetites of certain states and the tendencies towards hegemony in the Mediterranean made the constitution and maintenance of an active navy essential, capable of defending a determined policy, which could be comprised as maintaining the following:^[4]

• Defense of the territory, particularly the coastline,
• Support for the Muslims of Spain attacked by the religious fanaticism of their conquerors,
• Presence alongside the Ottoman Sultan in face of his adversaries,
• Control of the navigation to know friends from enemies,
• Leading the corso war against Europe.

The ruler would be guided by a Divan - a council of government - while another council known as atai'fa was charged with naval or privateering matters. Thetai'fa consisted of the port's senior privateering captains, led by the regency'sKapudan Rais or local admiral (also known as therais al bahriyya or Captain of the Marine).^[12] Direct access to the pasha gave the privateering captains considerable influence in the regency. The ruler was also advised by anAgha, or commander-in- chief of the Algerian JanissaryOdjak, whose duties included the annual collection of taxes and ensuring the security of the regency. The Agha also controlled the administration of the city of Algiers and its surroundings (known as Dar-Es-sultan), and presided over deliberations of the Divan.^[15] Meanwhile, theKapudan Rais supervised foreign affairs, and also administered the port of Algiers. Other lesser officials oversaw various aspects of the regency's administration, including the operation of the slave-markets, trade within the regency and the policing of the city. As the regency's legal framework was based on thesharia, the pasha was advised by twomuftis, and justice was usually swift and severe.^[12] In theory the same draconian system applied to the regency's ships and privateers when they were at sea; but in practice, theKapudan Rais, thetai'fa, and individual captains were largely left to govern their own affairs.^[16]

While the original holders of the title ofKapudan Rais were usually Turks or leading local privateers, by the 17th century the post was frequently held by a European renegade.^[17] TheKapudan Rais had a headquarters building near the harbour, and from there he and a small staff of clerks supervised the movement of all merchant shipping, as well as the activities of privateers and any regency warships. Before a privateering captain could put to sea he had to obtain permission to sail from theKapudan Rais, and collect a renewedletter of marque from the 'tai'fa. This council established cruising areas in advance, and often the duration of cruises. If the vessel was agalley] orgaliot, however, the lack of space for water, provisions, captives or plunder meant that cruises were of fairly short duration. Once these permissions were granted the captain hoisted a green flag to indicate that he was about to sail on acorso, and his crew would embark, accompanied in many cases by a detachment of the regency's Janissaries.^[18]

The corsair captains were joined by adventurers from many parts of the Mediterranean. Non-Turks who came to Algiers as captives of Algerian corsairs gained admittance to theta'ifa ofraïs through conversion to Islam and by virtue of their knowledge of the areas the corsairs raided.^[3] The rank ofraïs or commander of acorso vessel, was obtained only after an examination passed before the council ofraïs, chaired by the captain (admiral) a reserved for the oldest of theraïs, who no longer sailed. Another captain chosen by the council commanded the fleet. Arais was the absolute master on board, where the most rigorous discipline reigned.^[19]

The influx of "tenegades", or converts of European origin who brought their knowledge of European coasts and navigation, as well as theexpulsion of the Moriscos from Spain, who also imported valuable knowledge in the construction offrigates andbrigantines, were important factors in the growth of the fleet and thecorso. Based inCherchell, they knew the Spanish coastline, and around the 1570s, thecorso took on the aspect of a private enterprise, even if public investments were allocated to arsenals and ports under pressure from the community and the privateers.^[20]According to Diego de Haedo, the fleet of Algiers (including the vessels based at Cherchell) consisted, in 1581, of 35galiots - including two with 24 benches, one with 23 benches, 11 of 22 benches, 8 of 20 benches, 10 of 18 benches, one with 19 benches, and two with 15 benches — and about 25frigates (small rowing and undecked vessels), from 8 to 13 benches. More than two thirds of the Algiers galiots were commanded by European renegades (six Genoese, two Venetians, two Albanians, three Greeks, two Spaniards, one Frenchman, one Hungarian, one Sicilian, one Neapolitan, one Corsican and three of their sons).^[21] All these renegades occupied key positions. After the founder of the regency of Algiers,Hayreddin Barbarossa, the Sardinian renegadeHasan Agha (1535-1543), the CorsicanHassan Corso (1549-1556), the CalabrianUluj Ali Pasha (1568-1571) ended up with the title of admiral of the fleet, then the VenetianHassan Veneziano (1577-1580 and 1582-1583).^[22] They also took part in the armies of occupation of the subjected zones like local governments before the creation of the three beyliks; of the 23 territorial bosses, 13 were renegades or sons of renegades. Haedo would be able to say :^[23]

"In them, reside almost all the power, the influence, the government and the wealth of Algiers".

In the early 17th century, Algiers also became, along with other North African ports such asTunis, one of the bases forAnglo-Turkish piracy. The peace in Europe forced the Norse privateers to shift their field of activity to the Mediterranean and to serve the enemies of Algiers. Yet many of those privateers converted to Islam and were enlisted in the Algerian corsair Navy. As a result of this privateer spill, international piracy activity in the region intensified to an unprecedented degree.^[1] There were as many as 8,000renegades in the city in 1634.^[24][25]

A contemporary letter stated:

"The infinity of goods, merchandise jewels and treasure taken by our English pirates daily from Christians and carried toAlgire andTunis to the great enriching of Mores and Turks and impoverishing of Christians"

The Algerians armed for war the captured merchant ships which seemed fit for thecorso, and also bought ships in Europe. They had ship construction sites as well, located inBab-el-Oued for large ships, and inBab-Azoun for those of smaller dimensions. Christian slaves were employed in these shipyards, the management of which was often entrusted to renegades, even to free Christians, as captains of armament or engineers of naval constructions, who hired their services for a time, without being required to convert to Islam. The masts, yards, sails, ropes, powder, ammunition, and artillery pieces, were supplied by the government of the Ottoman Porte and by certain minor powers of Europe, the latter in the form of tribute.^[27]

At the beginning of the 17th century, Algiers' pirate fleet numbered 100 ships and employed 8,000 to 10,000 men. The piracy "industry" accounted for 25 percent of the workforce of the city, not counting other activities related directly to the port. The fleet averaged 25 ships in the 1680s, but these were larger vessels than had been used the 1620s, thus the fleet still employed some 7,000 men.^[28]

The introduction of round ships by the Flemish corsairZymen Danseker and the arrival ofexpelled Moriscos from Spain contributed strongly to the development of the fleet of Algiers,^[2] which was modernized and enlarged,^[29] it numbered as follows:

• In 1625, the corsair fleet included sixGalleasses, a large number ofbrigantines and a hundredGalleyes, more than sixty of them were equipped with 24 to 40 guns.^[21]
• In 1630, about 70 ships were in the port of the capital, with what the Algerians owned from the French years prior, and^{[clarification needed]}
• in 1632, 13 galleys were in the port, all of which were driven by oars, and 70 others with sails, and 23 boats of 30 to 50 cannons.
• In 1634, the Algerian fleet consisted of 70 vessels, each of which was armed with between 25 and 40 cannons.
• In 1657, the number decreased to 23 ships, and each ship included 30 to 50 cannons.
• In 1662, there were 22 barges and nine galleys in the capital, and in 1681 there were only 17 barges and two large ships with heavy weapons of 112 cannons. These 17 ships were mentioned by their names in the report of Sieur Hayet, among them:the Golden Mare,the Rose,the little Rose,the city of Algiers,the Marzouk,the Canaria.^[30]
• On the consul's Fiolle report, he says that in 1686: "The ship called "the Golden Rose" was armed with 40 cannons, the "Seven Stars" with 30 cannons, the "Golden Lion" equipped with 32 cannons, and that there were also on this date, 10 ships with two bridges, each containing 30 cannons, and 10 single-barreled ships, each containing 14 cannons, sometimes reaching 20. There were also two ships with two bridges containing 45 cannons and a fire equipped with 20 cannons, and five other ships, two of them with 50 cannons, two with 30 cannons, and besides that, there were 39 ships for transport and trade".
• It came in the report of Dr. Duke de Grafton^{[clarification needed]} dated October 14, 1687, that the number of Algerian ships in the diversity of their forms and the difference in weight and their cargo amounted to 60 ships, which had 570 cannons in total.^[30]

In the 18th century the number of Algerian ships diminished and was varying from 20 to 30 ships and were mostlyXebecs armed with 12 to 32 cannons.

• Duringthe Barbary Wars the said number increased in 1802 to 66 barges, each with between 25 and 80 long-range cannons
• In 1815, the number decreased to 41 ships, and there were only five battleships, the General Consul of the United States of AmericaWilliam Shaler tells about the Algerian Navy in 1815:"The Algerian fleet was composed of five frigates with 38 to 50 cannons and five corvettes".
• In 1816, four barges and 30 ships. Gouthrot^{[clarification needed]} says on that date only two battleships of 50 to 60 cannons, two corvettes with five cannons, two barges of 80 cannons, four galleys of 15 to 26 cannons, and one ship of 20 cannon of thepolacre type, and 35 ships.
• In 1820, 32 ships numbering 368 cannons.^[31]

Among these ships were the well-known "Al-Marikana", the famous "Mashouda" and the 44 cannon captured vessel "Portuguesa", the latter was captured by Rais Hamidou from the Portuguese navy in May 1802 with 282 prisoners, but then it was lost and others were burned whenLord admiral Exmouth attacked Algiers in 1816. There are also names for other ships, such as theMiftah al-Salam,Dik al-Marsa,Guide to Alexandria, and others seized.by the Algerian Navy, which left them with the names by which they were previously known.^[30]

During most of the 16th century, maritime wars were undertaken with fleets of thirty to forty galleys.^[32] The Barbarygalleys formed the Western naval division of theOttoman fleets. Their special function was to harm the hereditary enemy,Spain, by ravaging its coasts, landing unexpectedly in enemy territory, sacking villages and towns as it had atLipari,Naples andGenoa^[33] and carrying off their inhabitants into captivity. The Spanish watch towers and defense networks could not hold off the corsairs inCullera andVillajoyosa, and so thetierras maritimas (coastal lands) were abandoned.^[34]

Attacks on Christian and especially Catholic shipping, withslavery for the captured, became prevalent in Algiers and were actually the main industry and source of revenues of the Regency.^[24] The corsairs targeted Spanish commerce, and interrupted maritime communications with Spanish domains in Italy by boarding vessels, capturing crews and cargoes and taking everything back to Algiers, enriching it at the expense of Spanish trade.^[34]

The severe discipline and care, made the Algiers galley a war instrument of the first order; the damage that therais caused the enemies of the Ottoman sultan was so significant that SpanishBenedictine and historian Diego Haëdo wrote:^[35]

Sailing without any fear, they travel the sea from east to west, making fun of our galleys, whose crews, meanwhile, enjoy banqueting in the ports. Knowing well that when their galiotes, so well equipped, so light, encounter the Christian galleys, so heavy and so crowded, the latter cannot think of giving chase, and preventing them from pillaging and stealing at will. They have the habit, to mock them, of tacking, and showing them the stern... They are so careful about the order, cleanliness and layout of their ships, that they do not think about something else, focusing especially on good tie-down, to be able to line and tack well. It is for this reason that they do not have rumbalières... Finally, for this same reason, it is not permitted for anyone, even the son of the pasha himself, to change places, nor to move from where he is.

Algerian corsairs provided much needed help to the attemptedrebellion of the Moriscos. In this longwar, theraïs of Algiers had no rival; They showed incessant ardor and temerity almost always crowned with success. At a signal from the Sultan, they were seen running forward and fighting in the front ranks, as inBejaïa,Malta,Lepanto andTunis, where they acquired the well-deserved reputation of being the best and bravest sailors in the Mediterranean.^[36] French writerLouis de Baudicour [fr] wrote:^[37]

Algiers had become the firmest support of the Sultans of Constantinople. No event took place in the Mediterranean basin without the Algerian corsairs taking part in it. The main force of the entire Ottoman Navy rested on them.

Ra'ises (captains of corsair ships) such asMurat Rais the Elder in the 1580s andHamidou Raïs at the turn of the 19th century distinguished themselves through audacious attacks on Christian ships and bringing important prizes to Algiers.^[38]

Mediterranean ships were at first the main targets of the corsairs, but theraïs appeared in the oceans as soon as they adopted the use of round vessels. Exploring the routes of India and America, they disturbed the commerce of all enemy nations. In 1616,Rais Mourad the Younger (Jan Janszoon) plundered thecoasts of Iceland, from where he brought back to Algiers 400 captives. In 1619 the corsairsravaged Madeira. In 1631, theysacked Baltimore in Ireland, blocked the English Channel, and seized ships in theNorth Sea towards the 1650s.^[39][29] Algerian pirate naval warfare was intelligent and flexible, but its countermeasures were incredibly clumsy. The Algerians usedxebecs, fast-sailed galleys, to attack individual merchant ships when there was no wind. Algerians usually hid five to seven xebecs behind a large cliff near the coast, each with at least 100 soldiers. A clifftop lookout would spot European ships and signal them to approach. Europeans usually surrendered quickly when faced with a much superior attacking force. In the defense, the corsairs usually expected only the death of many sailors and certain defeat.^[40]

Theraïs pushed audacity so far as to found inLivorno,^[2] with the authorization of the Grand Duke ofTuscany, to whom they paid high royalties, a penal colony warehouse, where they came to deposit under the guard of the soldiers of the Grand Duke, the Christian slaves likely to obtain their freedom by means of a ransom. They still had a station atCape Verde to be nearer to stopping the Indian galleons.The Republic of Genoa tolerated for a very long time the traffic in its ports of goods coming from the looting of therais.^[39]

The spoils of the Corsairs multiplied in the first period of the regency, then began to decrease until they almost disappeared in the eighteenth century. By the end of the deys period they witnessed a remarkable growth with the attempt to develop the navy and increase its military activity, especially during the period of Europe's preoccupation with the wars ofthe French Revolution andthe conquests of Napoleon. The renewed activity of the Algerian Navy was linked to the efforts of sailors led byRais Hamidou (1790-1815). Of the naval spoils, the state used to take one fifth, and distribute the rest to the shipowners who had contributed to equipping the fleet.

Spoils according to years

^[41][42]

• 1556: 28 ships were captured nearMálaga and 50 others nearGibraltar strait
• 1608 - 1621: Nearly 1000 European ships were captured, among them 447 of Dutch nationality, 193 French, 120 Spanish, 60 English, and 50 from various German principalities. More than 12,000 people were enslaved.^[43]
• 1619 - 1627: More than 20,000 people were captured
• 1628 - 1634: 80 ships were captured during the war against France with 1331 people, which made the value of the total spoils in that war rise to about 4,752,000 pounds. Pere dan^{[clarification needed]} estimated the value of seized cargo at around 20,000,000 francs, and one million people enslaved.
• 1737 - 1799: therais took 376 ships. In 1785, Genoese, Venetian and Neapolitan ships were captured, their spoils estimated at 75,000,000 francs. In 1793, 11 American ships were captured and 100 American sailors were enslaved, then 16 Portuguese ships were captured by Rais Hamidou in 1797 along with 118 prisoners.
• 1800 - 1802: The spoils were estimated at 575,152 francs, and 20 ships were seized, of which 19 were Neapolitan, in addition to another Portuguese ship seized by Rais Hamidou, equipped with 44 cannons, its value estimated at 194,231.25 francs.
• 1805 - 1815: The value of spoils was estimated at 8 million francs, from 1800 prisoners and 30 ships. A truce in 1810 was followed by the treaty of 1813 with Portugal, in which 541 Portuguese prisoners were ransomed for 850,000 Algeriandoro
• 1825: The spoils reached eight ships, mostly Dutch, Spanish and English, with an estimated value of about 770,415.74 francs.
• 1817 - 1827: the value of spoils was approximately 700,000 francs, with 26 Greek ships seized.

In 1529, Hayreddin Barbarossa seized thePeñon facing the city of Algiers from the Spanish and linked the rock to the port by building apier.^[44] This allowed Algiers to become a secure port for naval and corsair companies. The city became the main base for corsairs in the Mediterranean.^[45] This domination enabled him to repel several attacks from a number of European countries, in particular, in October 1541, that ofCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, whose troops were defeated by the forces of the regency under the command of Hassan Agha, well aided by a storm which destroyed a good part of the enemy fleet.

In response Hassan Agha ordered the construction of a large artillery piece, designed in the foundries of Dar Ennahas, near the Bab El Oued gate in 1542, by a Venetian master builder in the pay of the beylerbey of Algiers, Hassan Agha. The cannon was placed during the completion of the "Kheir Eddine pier" at the end, on theBordj Amar.^{[46][unreliable source?]}

Oruç Barbarossa built a new kasbah a little above the previous Berber kasbah. Hayreddin and his successors rebuilt the wall surrounding the town, 36 t42 feet high, and some one and a half miles in length, of unbaked brick bonded with good mortar, resting on a substructure of concrete. The sea-front, though thick and high, was not solid enough to resist massive assaults. The wall accordingly was protected by a moat some 20 to 26 feet deep and 37 to 48 feet across, reinforced by square towers and slightly projecting bastions.^[47] Two more large works protected Khair al-Din.The breakwater and the Fishery Arsenal were protected by the parapet, crenellated and pierced withembrasures for muskets and cannon. Access to the town was through five main gates. TheBab Jdid or New Gate was to the south-west at the foot of the kasbah,Bab Azoun was to the south, the most important since people entered this way from thehinterland It was linked by a long mercantile street to theBab al-Oued to the north. The 'Island' or 'Holy War' gate (Bāb al-Jazira orBab al-Jihad), through which the raïs passed, opened on to the mole,^{[clarification needed]} and finally the 'Fish', 'Fishery' or 'Customs' gate (Bab Es-serdin), opened onto the road leading up from the harbour.^[47]

Outside the wall several forts supplemented the seafront fortifications. TheEulj 'Ali burj, built in 1568-1569 and known as the 'fort of the twenty-four hours', guarded theBab al-Oued beach. On the landward side the approaches to the town were defended by the fort known as the 'Star', built above the kasbah in 1568, and the Emperor Fort (Sultan Kalassi) built facing south between 1545 and 1580 on the site of the camp of Charles V.^[48]

In the confined space enclosed within the walls white houses were grouped closely together with terraces rising in tiers, their overhanging canopies supported on beams jutting so far out over the narrow streets as to sometimes meet those across the way, thus forming a ceiling of corduroy or of groined vaulting.^{[clarification needed]} It was not until the end of the fifteenth century that therais built their costly dwellings in the lower town.^[48] In Algiers, as in the other Barbary ports, the captains tended to maintain houses in the western part of the city, close to the kasbah, with their crews quartered close by. This was a precaution against any attack by political or domestic opponents, and it helped to ensure that the community of privateers formed an identifiable political and social bloc in the city.^[18] These new constructions modified the outward aspect of the town, which remained a Maghrebi city, although the greater part of the inhabitants were not of the Maghreb. Likewise, the interior arrangement of some rich houses was no longer of Maghrebi style.

According to Diego de Haëdo, about the year 1580 Algiers had a hundred mosques, chapels orzawiyas, not one of which survives. There were 'prayer halls with parallelnaves and pitched tile roofs'.^[49]

When a corsair ship returned to Algiers towing its booty, goods and captives were landed. The pasha would take his fifth, in addition to the body and tackle of the captured ship, then the cargo was sold. The slaves not chosen by the pasha were led into theBadestan, a long street closed at both ends, located on the site of the current Mahon square in Algiers. There, brokers ran the captives naked, so that buyers could make their selections. Half of the proceeds from these sales belonged to the outfitter of the capturing vessel: individual, company,rais himself; the other half was divided into shares, of which forty went to the captain, thirty to the agha of the Janissaries on board, ten to the officers, and the rest to the sailors and the soldiers.^[50]

Until the use of round vessels in the 17th century, which did away withoars, therais composed the crews of their galleys, which were generally very low in the water, with slaves they bought for this purpose, or captured at sea or on the Christian coasts. The rowers were tied to their benches, as many as 300 on a single vessel. When, at the beginning of the 17th century, sail became the only form of navigation, the use of slaves oncorso ships diminished notably; but theraïs still employed a few for heavy work: turning thecapstan, towing other boats, cleaning and so on.^[19]

The number of European Christians in captivity in the city of Algiers alone was estimated at about one million people throughout the seventeenth century, equivalent to a quarter of the city's population, numbering at that time about 100,000 people.^{[clarification needed]} In the four beylik prisons established specifically for this purpose after 1607, most prisoners were released forransom, some converted to Islam -- 8000 in 1634 of a total of 35,000 prisoners -- and some were integrated into the population and became an active in society, like many of the beleyrbeys who assumed power before the era of the pashas.^[51] The work that these prisoners carried out was divided between social services and economic tasks within the city of Algiers, and agricultural work outside the city of Algiers. The number of prisoners varied from year to year.

The following table extracted from European sources presents aggregate estimates for the city of Algiers according to year:^[41]

Among the most famous of these prisoners were:^[51]

1. French scientistPetrus Gyllius, captured in 1546 while traveling from France to Greece on a scientific mission at the request ofKing Francis I of France.
2. Dominique de Gourgues, the hero of Florida County, captured while traveling from Europe to America (1558).
3. Famous Italian painterFra Filippo Lippi de Madone, imprisoned in 1435
4. Italian writerEmmanuel d'Aranda de Bruges, captured while traveling from France to Spain in 1640.
5. French comic poet, who wrote the story known as the Beautiful Provençal,Jean-François Regnard, captured in 1678.
6. Famous Spanish writerMiguel de Cervantes, author ofDon Quixote and theMoriscan plays inspired by his memories in Algeria. He remained in captivity in Algeria from 1575 to 1580.
7. French scientistJean Foy-Vaillant was captured in 1674, when he was on a scientific trip to study money, commissioned byKing Louis XIV.
8. Italian cleric apriest of the city of Catania, calledCaraccioli, captured in 1561.
9. Italian poetAntonio Veneziano, captured along with Don Carlo Davagona in April 1578.
10. Writer Rene de Bois (Rene de Boys), captured in 1642.

Privateers and enslavemement of Christians originating from Algiers were major problems for centuries, leading to regular punitive expeditions by European powers:

• Spain (1567, 1775, 1783)
• Denmark (1770)
• France (1661, 1665, 1682, 1683, 1688)
• England (1622, 1655, 1672)

All led to naval bombardment of Algiers.^[24]Abraham Duquesne foughtBarbary pirates in 1681 and bombarded Algiers between 1682 and 1683 to help Christian captives.^[53]

• 18th
• 
  Regency war standard from John Beaumont's album (1705).^[54]
• 
  Pavilion of the dey of Algiers according to the album by John Beaumont (1705).^[54]
• 
  Type of maritime flag of the regency of Algiers^[54][55]
• 
  Type of maritime flag of the regency of Algiers.^[55]
• 
  Example of a flag used by corsairs of the Algiers regency.^[55]
• 
  Example of a flag used by corsairs of the Algiers regency.^[55]
• 
  Type of maritime flag of the regency of Algiers.^[56]
• 
  A pavilion of the regency of Algiers^[57]
• 
  A standard of the regency of Algiers^[58]
• 
  Pavilion of the Regency of Algiers (17th-18th centuries)(B. Dubreuil)

• 
  A French Ship and Barbary Pirates byAert Anthoniszoon andCornelis Bol
• 
  A Sea Fight with Barbary Corsair byLaureys a Castro (1664–1700)
• 
  Spanish engagement with Barbary pirates byAndries van Eertvelt (1590–1652)
• 
  An English Ship in Action with Barbary Vessels byWillem van de Velde the Younger (1633–1707)
• 
  A Spanish xebec facing two Algerian corsair galiots byÁngel Cortellini y Sánchez
• 
  Barbary corsairs in action, byNiels Simonsen (1844)

• Garrot, Henri (1910).Histoire générale de l'Algérie. Impr. P. Crescenzo.
• Jamieson, Alan G. (2013).Lords of the Sea: A History of the Barbary Corsairs. Reaktion Books.ISBN 978-1-86189-946-0.
• Julien, Charles André (1970).History of North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, from the Arab Conquest to 1830. Routledge & K. Paul.ISBN 978-0-7100-6614-5.
• Kaddache, Mahfoud (2003).L'Algérie des Algériens de la préhistoire à 1954 [Algeria of the Algerians: Prehistory to 1954] (in French). Paris-Méditerranée.ISBN 978-2-84272-166-4.
• Konstam, Angus (2016).The Barbary Pirates. 15th–17th Centuries.Oxford:Osprey Publishing.ISBN 978-1-4728-1543-9.
• Spencer, William (1976).Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs. University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN 978-0-8061-1334-0.
• Wolf, John Baptiste (1979).The Barbary Coast: Algiers Under the Turks, 1500 to 1830. Norton.ISBN 978-0-393-01205-7.
• Belhamissi, Moulay (2003).Marine et Marins d'Alger (1518-1830) [Navy and Sailors of Algiers (1518-1830)]. Bibliothèque Nationale d'Algerie.ISBN 978-9961-901-12-0.
• بوعزيز, يحيى (2007).الموجز في تاريخ الجزائر - الجزء الثاني (Brief history of Algeria - Part Two) (in Arabic). الجزائر: ديوان المطبوعات الجامعية.ISBN 978-9961-0-1045-7.
• الجيلالي, عبد الرحمن (1994).تاريخ الجزائر العام للعلامة عبد الرحمن الجيلالي الجزء الثالث: الخاص بالفترة بين 1514 إلى 1830م [The General History of Algeria by Abd al-Rahman al-Jilali, Part Three: Concerning the period between 1514 and 1830 AD] (in Arabic). الجزائر: الشركة الوطنية للنشر والتوزيع.
• Lowenheim, Oded (2009).Predators and Parasites: Persistent Agents of Transnational Harm and Great Power Authority. University of Michigan Press.ISBN 978-0-472-02225-0.
• Amirel, S. (2014).Persistent Piracy: Maritime Violence and State-Formation in Global Historical Perspective. Springer.ISBN 978-1-137-35286-6.
• Koskenniemi, Martti (2017).International Law and Empire: Historical Explorations. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-879557-5.

• Ethnic groups in Algeria
• Military history of the Regency of Algiers
• Naval history of Algeria

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