Thecoronation of themonarch of the United Kingdom is aninitiation ceremony in which they are formally invested withregalia and crowned atWestminster Abbey. It corresponds to the coronations that formerly took place in otherEuropean monarchies, which have all abandoned coronations in favour ofinauguration orenthronement ceremonies. A coronation is a symbolic formality and does not signify the official beginning of the monarch's reign;de jure andde facto his or her reign commences from the moment of the preceding monarch's death or abdication, maintaining legal continuity of the monarchy.
The coronation usually takes place several months after the death of the monarch's predecessor, as it is considered a joyous occasion that would be inappropriate while mourning continues. This interval also gives planners enough time to complete the required elaborate arrangements. Themost recent coronation took place on 6 May 2023 to crownKing Charles III andQueen Camilla.
The ceremony is performed by thearchbishop of Canterbury, the most senior cleric in theChurch of England, of which the monarch issupreme governor. Other clergy and members of theBritish nobility traditionally have roles as well. Most participants wear ceremonial uniforms or robes, and before the most recent coronation, some worecoronets. Many government officials and guests attend, including representatives of other countries.
The essential elements of the coronation have remained largely unchanged for the past 1,000 years. The sovereign is first presented to, and acclaimed by, the people. The sovereign then swears an oath to uphold the law and the Church. Following that, the monarch isanointed withholy oil, invested with regalia, and crowned, before receiving thehomage of their subjects.Consorts of kings are then anointed and crowned as queens. The service ends with a closing procession, and since the 20th century it has been traditional for theroyal family to appear later on the balcony ofBuckingham Palace to greet crowds and watch aflypast.
English coronations were traditionally held atWestminster Abbey, with the monarch seated on theCoronation Chair. Main elements of the coronation service and the earliest form of oath can be traced to the ceremony devised bySaint Dunstan forKing Edgar's coronation in 973 AD atBath Abbey. It drew on ceremonies used by the kings of theFranks and those used in theordination ofbishops. Two versions of coronation services, known asordines (from the Latinordo meaning "order") orrecensions, survive from before theNorman Conquest. It is not known if the first recension was ever used in England, and it was the second recension which was used by Edgar in 973 and by subsequentAnglo-Saxon and earlyNorman kings.[1]
A third recension was probably compiled during the reign ofHenry I and was used at the coronation of his successor,Stephen, in 1135. While retaining the most important elements of the Anglo-Saxon rite, it may have borrowed from the consecration of theHoly Roman emperor from thePontificale Romano-Germanicum, a book of German liturgy compiled inMainz in 961, thus bringing the English tradition into line with continental practice.[2] It remained in use until the coronation ofEdward II in 1308 when the fourth recension was first used, having been compiled over several preceding decades. Although influenced by its French counterpart, the newordo focussed on the balance between the monarch and his nobles and on the oath, neither of which concerned the absolutist French kings.[3] One manuscript of this recension is theLiber Regalis at Westminster Abbey which has come to be regarded as the definitive version.[4]
Following the start of theReformation in England, the boy kingEdward VI had been crowned in the firstProtestant coronation in 1547, during which ArchbishopThomas Cranmer preached a sermon againstidolatry and "the tyranny of the bishops of Rome". However, six years later, he was succeeded by his half-sisterMary I, who restored theCatholic rite.[5] In 1559,Elizabeth I underwent thelast English coronation under the auspices of the Catholic Church; however, Elizabeth's insistence on changes to reflect her Protestant beliefs resulted in several bishops refusing to officiate at the service, and it was conducted by the low-rankingbishop of Carlisle,Owen Oglethorpe.[6]
Scottish coronations were traditionally held atScone Abbey inPerthshire, with the monarch seated on theStone of Destiny. The original rituals were a fusion of ceremonies used by the kings ofDál Riata, based on the inauguration ofAidan byColumba in 574, and by thePicts from whom the Stone of Destiny came. A crown does not seem to have been used until the inauguration ofAlexander II in 1214. The ceremony included thelaying on of hands by a senior cleric and the recitation of the king'sgenealogy.[7] Thebishop of St Andrews (from 1472 an archbishop) usually presided, but other bishops and archbishops also performed at some coronations.[8][9]
After the coronation ofJohn Balliol, the Stone was taken to Westminster Abbey in 1296 and in 1300–1301 Edward I of England had it incorporated into the EnglishCoronation Chair.[10] Its first certain use at an English coronation was that of Henry IV in 1399.[11]Pope John XXII in abull of 1329 granted the kings of Scotland the right to be anointed and crowned.[7] No record exists of the exact form of the medieval rituals, but a later account exists of the coronation of the 17-month-old infantJames V atStirling Castle in 1513. The ceremony was held in a church, since demolished, within the castle walls and was conducted by thebishop of Glasgow, because thearchbishop of St Andrews had been killed at theBattle of Flodden.[12] It is likely that the child would have beenknighted before the start of the ceremony.[13] The coronation itself started with asermon, followed by the anointing and crowning, then the coronation oath, in this case taken for the child by an unknown noble or priest, and finally an oath of fealty and acclamation by the congregation.[14]
James VI had beencrowned in theChurch of the Holy Rude atStirling in 1567. After theUnion of the Crowns, he was crowned atWestminster Abbey on 25 July 1603. His sonCharles I travelled north for a Scottish coronation atHolyrood Abbey inEdinburgh in 1633,[15] but caused consternation amongst thePresbyterian Scots by his insistence on elaborateHigh Anglican ritual, arousing "gryt feir of inbriginge of poperie".[16]Charles II underwent asimple Presbyterian coronation ceremony atScone in 1651, but his brotherJames VII and II was never crowned in Scotland, although Scottish peers attendedhis 1685 coronation in London, setting a precedent for future ceremonies.[17] The coronation of Charles II was the last to take place in Scotland, and no bishop presided as theepiscopacy had been abolished; thede facto head of government,Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, crowned Charles instead.[18]
TheLiber Regalis was translated into English for the first time for the coronation of James I in 1603, partly as a result of thereformation in England requiring services to be understood by the people,[19] but also an attempt byantiquarians to recover a lost English identity from before the Norman Conquest.[20] In 1685, James II, who was a Catholic, ordered a truncated version of the service omitting theEucharist, but this was restored for later monarchs. Only four years later, the service was again revised byHenry Compton for the coronation ofWilliam III andMary II.[21] The Latin text was resurrected for the 1714 coronation of the German-speakingGeorge I, since it was the only common language between the king and the clergy. Perhaps because the 1761 coronation ofGeorge III had been beset by "numerous mistakes and stupidities",[22] the next time around, spectacle overshadowed the religious aspect of the service. Thecoronation of George IV in 1821 was an expensive and lavish affair with a vast amount of money being spent on it.[23]
George's brother and successorWilliam IV had to be persuaded to be crowned at all;his coronation at a time of economic depression in 1831 cost only one sixth of that spent on the previous event. Traditionalists threatened to boycott what they called a "Half Crown-nation".[24] The king merely wore his robes over his uniform asAdmiral of the Fleet.[25] For this coronation, a number of economising measures were made which would set a precedent followed by future monarchs. The assembly of peers and ceremonial at Westminster Hall involving the presentation of the regalia to the monarch was eliminated. The procession from Westminster Hall to the Abbey on foot was likewise eliminated and in its place, a state procession by coach fromSt James's Palace to the abbey was instituted, an important feature of the modern event.[24] The coronation banquet after the service proper was also terminated.[26]
WhenVictoria wascrowned in 1838, the service followed the pared-down precedent set by her uncle, and the under-rehearsed ceremonial, again presided over byWilliam Howley, was marred by mistakes and accidents.[27] The music in the abbey was widely criticised in the press, only one new piece having been written for it, and the large choir and orchestra were badly coordinated.[28]
In the 20th century, liturgical scholars sought to restore the spiritual meaning of the ceremony by rearranging elements with reference to the medieval texts,[29] creating a "complex marriage of innovation and tradition".[30] The greatly increased pageantry of the state processions was intended to emphasise the strength and diversity of theBritish Empire.[31]
The idea of the need to gain popular support for a new monarch by making the ceremony a spectacle for ordinary people, started with the coronation in 1377 ofRichard II who was a 10-year-old boy, thought unlikely to command respect simply by his physical appearance. On the day before the coronation, the boy king and his retinue were met outside theCity of London by thelord mayor,aldermen and thelivery companies, and he was conducted to theTower of London where he spent the night invigil. The following morning, the king travelled on horseback in a great procession through the decorated city streets to Westminster. Bands played along the route, thepublic conduits flowed with red and white wine, and an imitation castle had been built inCheapside, probably to represent theNew Jerusalem, where a girl blewgold leaf over the king and offered him wine. Similar, or even more elaborate pageants continued until the coronation ofCharles II in 1661.[32] Charles's pageant was watched bySamuel Pepys who wrote: "So glorious was the show with gold and silver that we were not able to look at it". James II abandoned the tradition of the pageant to pay for jewels for his queen[33] and thereafter there was only a short procession on foot fromWestminster Hall to the abbey. For thecoronation of William IV and Adelaide in 1831, a state procession fromSt James's Palace to the abbey was instituted, and this pageantry is an important feature of the modern event.[24]
In early modern coronations, the events inside the abbey were usually recorded by artists and published in elaboratefolio books of engravings,[34] the last of these was published in 1905 depicting the coronation which had taken place three years earlier.[35] Re-enactments of the ceremony were staged at London and provincial theatres; in 1761, a production featuring the Westminster Abbey choir at theRoyal Opera House inCovent Garden ran for three months after the real event.[34] In 1902, a request to record the ceremony on agramophone record was rejected, but Sir Benjamin Stone photographed the procession into the abbey.[35] Nine years later, at thecoronation of George V, Stone was allowed to photograph the recognition, the presentation of the swords, and the homage.[36]
Thecoronation of George VI in 1937 was broadcast on radio by theBritish Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), and parts of the service were filmed and shown in cinemas.[37] The state procession was shownlive on the newBBC Television Service, the first majoroutside broadcast.[38] AtElizabeth II's coronation in 1953, most of the proceedings inside the abbey were also televised by the BBC. Originally, events as far as the choir screen were to be televised live, with the remainder to be filmed and released later after any mishaps were edited out. This would prevent television viewers from seeing most of the highlights of the coronation, including the actual crowning, live; it led to controversy in the press and even questions in parliament.[39] The organising committee subsequently decided that the entire ceremony would be televised, except for the anointing and communion, which had also been excluded from photography at the last coronation. It was revealed 30 years later that the about-face was due to the personal intervention of the Queen. It is estimated that over 20 million people watched the broadcast in the United Kingdom. The coronation contributed to the increase of public interest in television, which rose significantly.[40]
The need to include the various elements of theBritish Empire in coronations was not considered until 1902, when it was attended by the prime ministers andgovernors-general of theBritish Dominions, by then almost completelyautonomous, and also by many of the rulers of theIndian Princely States and the variousBritish Protectorates. AnImperial Conference was held afterwards.[41] In 1911, the procession inside Westminster Abbey included the banners of the dominions, India and theHome Nations. By 1937, theStatute of Westminster 1931 had made the dominions fully independent, and the wording of the coronation oath was amended to include their names and confine the elements concerning religion to the United Kingdom.[42]
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Thus since 1937, the monarch has been simultaneously crowned as sovereign of several independent nations besides the United Kingdom, known since 1953 as theCommonwealth realms. Elizabeth II was asked, for example: "Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon, and of your Possessions and other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining, according to their respective laws and customs?"[43] In 2023, the oath was amended to avoid reciting the realms other than the United Kingdom during thecoronation of Charles III.[44]
The timing of the coronation has varied throughout British history.King Edgar's coronation was some 15 years after his accession in 959 and may have been intended to mark the high point of his reign, or that he reached the age of 30, the age at whichJesus Christ was baptised.[45] Harold II was crowned on the day after the death of his predecessor,Edward the Confessor, the rush probably reflecting the contentious nature of Harold's succession;[46] whereas the firstNorman monarch,William I, was alsocrowned on the day he became king, 25 December 1066,[47] but three weeks since the surrender of English nobles and bishops atBerkhampstead, allowing time to prepare a spectacular ceremony.[46] Most of his successors were crowned within weeks, or even days, of their accession.Edward I was fighting in theNinth Crusade when he acceded to the throne in 1272; he was crowned soon after his return in 1274.[48]Edward II's coronation, similarly, was delayed by a campaign inScotland in 1307.[49]Henry VI was only a few months old when he acceded in 1422; he was crowned in 1429, but did not officially assume the reins of government until he was deemed of sufficient age, in 1437.[50] Pre-modern coronations were usually either on a Sunday, theChristian Sabbath, or on aChristian holiday. Edgar's coronation was atPentecost,[51] William I's onChristmas Day, possibly in imitation of the Byzantine emperors,[52] andJohn's was onAscension Day.[53] Elizabeth I consulted herastrologer,John Dee, before deciding on an auspicious date.[54] The coronations of Charles II in 1661 and Anne in 1702 were onSt George's Day, the feast of thepatron saint of England.[55]
Under the Hanoverian monarchs in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it was deemed appropriate to extend the waiting period to several months, following a period of mourning for the previous monarch and to allow time for preparation of the ceremony.[56]In the case of every monarch betweenGeorge IV andGeorge V, at least one year passed between accession and coronation.[57]Edward VIII was not crowned and his successorGeorge VI was crowned 5 months after his accession. The coronation date of his predecessor had already been set; planning simply continued with a new monarch.[58] Thecoronation of Charles III and Camilla was held on 6 May 2023, eight months after he acceded to the throne.[59]
Since a period of time has often passed between accession and coronation, some monarchs were never crowned.Edward V andLady Jane Grey were both deposed before they could be crowned, in 1483 and 1553, respectively.[60]Edward VIII also went uncrowned, as he abdicated in 1936 before the end of the customary one-year period between accession and coronation.[57] A monarch, however, accedes to the throne the moment their predecessor dies, not when they are crowned, hence the traditional proclamation: "The king is dead, long live the king!"[61]
TheAnglo-Saxon monarchs used various locations for their coronations, includingBath,Kingston upon Thames, London, andWinchester. The last Anglo-Saxon monarch,Harold II, was crowned atWestminster Abbey in 1066; the location was preserved for all future coronations.[62] When London was under the control of rebels,[63]Henry III was crowned atGloucester in 1216; he later chose to have a second coronation at Westminster in 1220.[64] Two hundred years later, Henry VI also had two coronations; as king of England in London in 1429, and asking of France in Paris in 1431.[50]
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Coronations may be performed for a person other than the reigning monarch. In 1170,Henry the Young King, heir apparent to the throne, was crowned as a second king of England, subordinate to his fatherHenry II;[65] such coronations were common practice in mediaeval France and Germany, but this is only one of two instances of its kind in England (the other being that ofEcgfrith of Mercia in 796, crowned whilst his father,Offa of Mercia, was still alive).[66] More commonly, a king's wife is crowned asqueen consort. If the king is already married at the time of his coronation, a joint coronation of both king and queen may be performed.[56] The first such coronation was ofHenry II andEleanor of Aquitaine in 1154; eighteen such coronations have been performed, including that of the co-rulersWilliam III andMary II.[67] The most recent was that ofCharles III and his wifeCamilla in 2023. If the king married, or remarried, after his coronation, or if his wife was not crowned with him for some other reason, she might be crowned in a separate ceremony. The first such separate coronation of a queen consort in England was that ofMatilda of Flanders in 1068;[68] the last wasAnne Boleyn's in 1533.[69] The most recent king to wed post-coronation,Charles II, did not have a separate coronation for his bride,Catherine of Braganza.[70] In some instances, the king's wife was simply unable to join him in the coronation ceremony due to circumstances preventing her from doing so. In 1821, George IV's estranged wifeCaroline of Brunswick was not invited to the ceremony; when she showed up at Westminster Abbey anyway, she was denied entry and turned away.[71] Following theEnglish Civil War,Oliver Cromwell declined the crown but underwent a coronation in all but name in his second investiture asLord Protector in 1657.[72]
The Archbishop of Canterbury, who has precedence over all other clergy and all laypersons except members of the royal family,[73] traditionally officiates at coronations;[74] in his absence, another bishop appointed by the monarch may take the archbishop's place.[75] There have, however, been several exceptions. William I was crowned by theArchbishop of York, since the Archbishop of Canterbury had been appointed by theAntipopeBenedict X, and this appointment was not recognised as valid by the Pope.[76]Edward II was crowned by theBishop of Winchester because the Archbishop of Canterbury had been exiled byEdward I.[77]Mary I, a Catholic, refused to be crowned by the Protestant ArchbishopThomas Cranmer; the coronation was instead performed by the Bishop of Winchester.[78]Elizabeth I was crowned by theBishop of Carlisle (to whosesee is attached no special precedence) because the seniorprelates were "either dead, too old and infirm, unacceptable to the queen, or unwilling to serve".[79] Finally, whenJames II was deposed and replaced with William III and Mary II jointly, the Archbishop of Canterbury refused to recognise the new sovereigns; he had to be replaced by theBishop of London,Henry Compton.[80] Hence, in almost all cases where the Archbishop of Canterbury has failed to participate, his place has been taken by a senior cleric: the Archbishop of York is second in precedence, the Bishop of London third, the Bishop of Durham fourth, and the Bishop of Winchester fifth.[73]
From the moment they enter the Abbey until the moment they leave, the monarch is flanked by two supporting bishops of the Church of England.
The part played by two supporting bishops dates back to the coronation ofEdgar in 973: two bishops led him by hand into Bath Abbey. Since the coronation ofRichard I in 1189, the Bishops of Bath & Wells and Durham have assumed this duty.
Custom has it that they accompany the monarch throughout the ceremony, flanking them as they process from the entrance of Westminster Abbey and standing either side of St Edward's Chair during the anointing. Bishops Assistant may also carry the Bible, paten, and chalice in the procession.[81]
The Bishop of Durham stands on the monarch's right and the Bishop of Bath and Wells on their left.[82]During the Coronation of KingCharles III,Queen Camilla was similarly accompanied by Bishops Assistant – the Bishops of Hereford and of Norwich – on her right and left respectively.[83]
TheGreat Officers of State traditionally participate during the ceremony. The offices ofLord High Steward andLord High Constable have not been regularly filled since the 15th and 16th centuries respectively; they are, however, revived for coronation ceremonies.[84][85] TheLord Great Chamberlain enrobes the sovereign with the ceremonial vestments, with the aid of theGroom of the Robes and theMaster (in the case of a king) orMistress (in the case of a queen) of the Robes.[43]
TheBarons of theCinque Ports also participated in the ceremony. Formerly, the barons were the members of the House of Commons representing the Cinque Ports ofHastings,New Romney,Hythe,Dover andSandwich. Reforms in the 19th century, however, integrated the Cinque Ports into a regular constituency system applied throughout the nation. At later coronations, barons were specially designated from among the city councillors for the specific purpose of attending coronations. Originally, the barons were charged with bearing a ceremonial canopy over the sovereign during the procession to and from Westminster Abbey. The last time the barons performed such a task was at thecoronation of George IV in 1821. The barons did not return for the coronations ofWilliam IV (who insisted on a simpler, cheaper ceremonial) andVictoria. At coronations since Victoria's, the barons have attended the ceremony, but they have not carried canopies.[86]
Many landowners and other persons have honorific "duties" or privileges at the coronation. Such rights have traditionally been determined by a specialCourt of Claims, over which the Lord High Steward traditionally presided. The first recorded Court of Claims was convened in 1377 for the coronation ofRichard II. By the Tudor period, the hereditary post of Lord High Steward had merged with the Crown, and soHenry VIII began the modern tradition of naming a temporary Steward for the coronation only, with separate commissioners to carry out the actual work of the court.[84]
In 1952, for example, the court accepted the claim of theDean of Westminster to advise the Queen on the proper procedure during the ceremony (for nearly a thousand years he and his predecessor abbots have kept an unpublished Red Book of practices), the claim of theLord Bishop of Durham and theLord Bishop of Bath and Wells to walk beside the Queen as she entered and exited the Abbey and to stand on either side of her through the entire coronation ritual, the claim of theEarl of Shrewsbury in his capacity asLord High Steward of Ireland to carry a white staff. The legal claim of theScholars ofWestminster School to be the first to acclaim the monarch on behalf of the common people was formally disallowed by the court, but in practice their traditional shouts of "Vivat! Vivat Rex!" were still incorporated into the coronation anthemI was glad.[87]
For the 2023coronation of Charles III and Camilla, a Coronation Claims Office within theCabinet Office was established instead of the court.[88]
Along with persons of nobility, the coronation ceremonies are also attended by a wide range of political figures, including theprime minister and all members of theCabinet of the United Kingdom, allgovernors-general and prime ministers of theCommonwealth realms, all governors of BritishCrown Colonies (now BritishOverseas Territories), as well as theheads of state of dependent nations. Hereditary peers and their spouses are also invited. For Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, 8,000 guests were squeezed into Westminster Abbey and each person had to make do with a maximum of 18 inches (46 cm) of seating.[89]
Dignitaries and representatives from other nations are also customarily invited.[56] Traditionally, foreign crowned monarchs and consorts did not attend the coronations of others and were instead represented by other royals. In 1953,Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor (formerly Edward VIII), was not invited to thecoronation of Elizabeth II, with the reason given that it was contrary to precedent for a sovereign or former sovereign to attend any coronation of another.[90] Thecoronation of Charles III and Camilla in 2023 broke with that precedent and 16 foreign monarchs attended.[91][92] English and British queens dowager also did not traditionally attend coronations untilQueen Mary broke precedent by attending the 1937coronation of her son, George VI.[93]
The general framework of the coronation service is based on the sections contained in the Second Recension used in 973 for King Edgar. Although the service has undergone two major revisions and a translation, and has been modified for each coronation for the following thousand years, the sequence of taking an oath, anointing, investing of regalia, crowning and enthronement found in the Anglo-Saxon text[94] have remained constant.[95] The coronation ceremonies takes place within the framework ofHoly Communion.[96]
Before the entrance of the sovereign, the litany of the saints is sung during the procession of the clergy and other dignitaries. For the entrance of the monarch, an anthem fromPsalm 122,I was glad, is sung.[97]
The sovereign enters Westminster Abbey wearing thecrimson surcoat and theRobe of State of crimson velvet and takes their seat on a Chair of Estate.Garter Principal King of Arms, the Archbishop of Canterbury, theLord Chancellor, theLord Great Chamberlain, theLord High Constable and theEarl Marshal go to the east, south, west and north of the coronation theatre.[98] At each side, the archbishop calls for the recognition of the sovereign, with the words:
Sirs, I here present unto you [name], your undoubted King/Queen. Wherefore all you who are come this day to do your homage and service, are you willing to do the same?[43]
After the people acclaim the sovereign at each side, the archbishop administers an oath to the sovereign.[43] Since theGlorious Revolution, theCoronation Oath Act 1688 has required, among other things, that the sovereign "Promise and Sweare to Governe the People of this Kingdome of England and the Dominions thereto belonging according to the Statutes in Parlyament Agreed on and the Laws and Customs of the same".[99] The oath has been modified without statutory authority; for example, at thecoronation of Elizabeth II, the exchange between the Queen and the archbishop was as follows:[43]
The Archbishop of Canterbury: Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, theUnion of South Africa,Pakistan andCeylon, and of your Possessions and other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining, according to their respective laws and customs?
The Queen: I solemnly promise so to do.
The Archbishop of Canterbury: Will you to your power cause Law and Justice, in Mercy, to be executed in all your judgments?
The Queen: I will.
The Archbishop of Canterbury: Will you to the utmost of your power maintain the Laws of God and the true profession of the Gospel? Will you to the utmost of your power maintain in the United Kingdom the Protestant Reformed Religion established by law? Will you maintain and preserve inviolable the settlement of the Church of England, and the doctrine, worship, discipline, and government thereof, as by law established in England? And will you preserve unto the Bishops and Clergy of England, and to the Churches there committed to their charge, all such rights and privileges, as by law do or shall appertain to them or any of them?
The Queen: All this I promise to do. The things which I have here before promised, I will perform, and keep. So help me God.[43]
In addition to the oath, the monarch may take what is known as theAccession Declaration if they have not yet made it. This declaration was first required by theBill of Rights 1689 and is required to be taken at either the first meeting of the parliament after a new monarch's accession (i.e. during theState Opening of Parliament) or at their coronation. The monarch additionally swears a separate oath to preservePresbyterian church government in theChurch of Scotland and this oath is taken before the coronation.[75]
Once the taking of the oath concludes, an ecclesiastic presents a Bible to the sovereign, saying "Here is Wisdom; This is the royal Law; These are the lively Oracles of God."[43] The Bible used is a fullKing James Bible, including theApocrypha.[100] At Elizabeth II's coronation, the Bible was presented by theModerator of the General Assembly of theChurch of Scotland. Once the Bible is presented, theHoly Communion is celebrated, with a special Collect for the coronation, but the service is interrupted after theNicene Creed. At the coronation of Elizabeth II, the Epistle was1 Peter 2:13–17, which instructs readers to respect and obey civil government, and the Gospel wasMatthew 22:15–22, which contains Jesus's famous instruction to "render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's".[43]
After the Communion service is interrupted, the anthemCome, Holy Ghost is recited, as a prelude to the act of anointing. After this anthem, the Archbishop recites a prayer in preparation for the anointing, which is based on the ancient prayerDeus electorum fortitudo also used in the anointing of French kings. After this prayer, the coronation anthemZadok the Priest (by George Frederick Handel) is sung by the choir; meanwhile, thecrimson robe is removed, and the sovereign proceeds to theCoronation Chair for the anointing,[43] which has been set in a prominent position, wearing theanointing gown. In 1953, the chair stood atop a dais of several steps.[101] This mediaeval chair has a cavity in the base into which theStone of Scone is fitted for the ceremony. Also known as the "Stone of Destiny", it was used for ancient Scottish coronations until brought to England byEdward I. It has been used for every coronation at Westminster Abbey since. Until 1996, the stone was kept with the chair in Westminster Abbey, but it was moved that year toEdinburgh Castle in Scotland, where it is displayed on the proviso that it be returned to Westminster Abbey for use at future coronations.[10] It was announced by theFirst Minister in 2020 that the Stone will be relocated toPerth City Hall in 2024.[102]
Once seated in this chair, acanopy of golden cloth was in the past held over the monarch's head for theanointing. The duty of acting as canopy-bearers was performed in recent coronations by fourKnights of the Garter.[43] This element of the coronation service is considered sacred and is concealed from public gaze;[103] it has never been photographed or televised. The Dean of Westminster poursconsecrated oil from an eagle-shapedampulla into afiligreed spoon with which the Archbishop of Canterbury anoints the sovereign in the form of a cross on the hands, head, and heart.[43] TheCoronation Spoon is the only part of the medieval Crown Jewels which survived theCommonwealth of England.[104] While performing the anointing, the Archbishop recites a consecratory formula recalling the anointing of KingSolomon byNathan the prophet andZadok the priest.[43]
After being anointed, the monarch rises from the Coronation Chair and kneels down at afaldstool placed in front of it. The archbishop then concludes the ceremonies of the anointing by reciting a prayer that is a modified English translation of the ancient Latin prayerDeus, Dei Filius, which dates back to the Anglo-Saxon second recension.[105] Once this prayer is finished, the monarch rises and sits again in the Coronation Chair. At this point in 2023 the screen was removed.[43]
The sovereign is then enrobed in thecolobium sindonis (shroud tunic), over which is placed thesupertunica.[43]
The Lord Great Chamberlain presents thespurs,[43] which representchivalry.[104] The Archbishop of Canterbury, assisted by other bishops, then presents the Sword of State to the sovereign, who places it on the altar. The sovereign is then further robed, this time receiving bracelets and putting theRobe Royal andStole Royal on top of thesupertunica. The Archbishop then delivers severalCrown Jewels to the sovereign. First, he delivers theOrb,[43] a hollow gold sphere decorated with precious and semi-precious stones. The Orb is surmounted by a cross, representing the dominion of the divine over the world;[106] it is returned to the altar immediately after being received.[43] Next, the sovereign receives a ring representing their "marriage" to their territories, their subjects, and the divine.[107] TheSovereign's Sceptre with Dove, so called because it is surmounted by a dove representing theHoly Ghost, and theSovereign's Sceptre with Cross, which incorporatesCullinan I, are delivered to the sovereign.[108]
The Archbishop of Canterbury liftsSt Edward's Crown from the high altar, sets it back down, and says a prayer: "Oh God, the crown of the faithful; bless we beseech thee and sanctify this thy servant our king/queen, and as thou dost this day set a crown of pure gold upon his/her head, so enrich his/her royal heart with thine abundant grace, and crown him/her with all princely virtues through the King Eternal Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen". This prayer is the translation of the ancient formulaDeus tuorum Corona fidelium, which first appeared in the twelfth-century third recension.[109]
TheDean of Westminster picks up the crown and he, the archbishop and several other high-ranking bishops proceed to the Coronation Chair where the crown is handed back to the archbishop, who reverently places it on the monarch's head.[110] At this moment, the king or queen is crowned, and the guests in the abbey cry in unison three times, "God Save the King/Queen". The trumpeters sound a fanfare and church bells ring out across the kingdom, asgun salutes echo from theTower of London andHyde Park.[111]
Finally, the archbishop, standing before the monarch, says the crowning formula, which is a translation of the ancient Latin prayerCoronet te Deus: "God crown you with a crown of glory and righteousness, that having a right faith and manifold fruit of good works, you may obtain the crown of an everlasting kingdom by the gift of him whose kingdom endureth for ever." To this the guests, with heads bowed, say "Amen".[112]
When this prayer is finished, the choir sings an English translation of the traditional LatinantiphonConfortare: "Be strong and of a good courage; keep the commandments of the Lord thy God, and walk in his ways". During the singing of this antiphon, all stand in their places, and the monarch remains seated in the Coronation Chair still wearing the crown and holding the sceptres. The recitation of this antiphon is followed by a rite ofbenediction consisting of several prayers, after each one the congregation replies with "a loud and hearty Amen".[43]
The benediction being concluded, the sovereign rises from the Coronation Chair and is borne into a throne. Once the monarch is seated on the throne, the formulaStand firm, and hold fast from henceforth... is recited;[43] a translation of the Latin formulaSta et retine..., which was first used in England in the tenth-century second recension, and also appeared in French, German and imperial coronation texts.[113]
After the enthronement proper, the act of homage takes place: the archbishops and bishops swear theirfealty, saying "I, N., Archbishop [Bishop] of N., will be faithful and true, and faith and truth will bear unto you, our Sovereign Lord [Lady], King [Queen] of this Realm and Defender of the Faith, and unto your heirs and successors according to law. So help me God." In the past peers then proceeded to pay their homage, saying "I, N., Duke [Marquess, Earl, Viscount, Baron or Lord] of N., do become your liege man of life and limb, and of earthly worship; and faith and truth will I bear unto you, to live and die, against all manner of folks. So help me God."[43] The clergy pay homage together, led by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Next, members of the royal family pay homage individually. The peers were then led by the premier peers of their rank: the dukes by the premier duke, the marquesses by the premier marquess, and so forth.[43] In the shortenedcoronation of Charles III and Camilla, the paying of homage by the peerage was omitted.[114]
If there is aqueen consort, she is anointed, invested, crowned and enthroned in a simple ceremony immediately after homage is paid. The Communion service interrupted earlier is resumed and completed, but with special prayers: there are prayers for the monarch and consort at the Offertory and a special preface.[56][43] Finally, the monarch and consort receive Communion, theGloria in excelsis Deo is sung and theblessing is given.[115]
The sovereign then exits the coronation theatre, entering St Edward's Chapel (within the abbey), preceded by the bearers of the Sword of State, the Sword of Spiritual Justice, the Sword of Temporal Justice and the bluntSword of Mercy.[116] While the monarch is in St. Edward's chapel, the choir recites an English translation of the hymn of thanksgivingTe Deum laudamus. St Edward's Crown and all the other regalia are laid on the High Altar of the chapel;[43] the sovereign removes theRobe Royal andStole Royal, exchanges thecrimson surcoat for thepurple surcoat[117] and is enrobed in theImperial Robe of purple velvet. The sovereign then dons theImperial State Crown and takes into their hands the Sceptre with the Cross and the Orb and leaves the chapel first while all present sing thenational anthem.[43]
The music played at coronations has been primarily classical and religiously inspired. Much of thechoral music uses texts from the Bible which have been used at coronations since King Edgar's coronation at Bath in 973 and are known ascoronation anthems. In the coronations following theReformation, court musicians, often theMaster of the King's Music, were commissioned to compose newsettings for the traditional texts. The most frequently used piece isZadok the Priest byGeorge Frideric Handel; one of four anthems commissioned from him forGeorge II's coronation in 1727. It has featured in every coronation since, an achievement unparalleled by any other piece. Previous settings of the same text were composed byHenry Lawes for the 1661 coronation ofCharles II andThomas Tomkins forCharles I in 1621.[118]
In the 19th century, works by major European composers were often used, but when Sir Frederick Bridge was appointed director of music for the 1902coronation of Edward VII, he decided that it ought to be a celebration of four hundred years of British music. Compositions byThomas Tallis,Orlando Gibbons andHenry Purcell were included alongside works by contemporary composers such asArthur Sullivan,Charles Villiers Stanford andJohn Stainer.[119]Hubert Parry'sI was glad was written as the entrance anthem for the 1902 coronation, replacing an 1831 setting byThomas Attwood; it contains a bridge section partway through so that the scholars ofWestminster School can exercise their right to be the first commoners to acclaim the sovereign, shouting their traditional"vivats" as the sovereign enters the coronation theatre. This anthem andCharles Villiers Stanford'sGloria in excelsis (1911) have also been used regularly in recent coronations, as has the national anthem,God Save the King (or Queen).[120] Other composers whose music featured in Elizabeth II's coronation includeSir George Dyson,Gordon Jacob,Sir William Henry Harris,Herbert Howells,Sir William Walton,Samuel Sebastian Wesley,Ralph Vaughan Williams and the Canadian-resident but English-bornHealey Willan.[121] Ralph Vaughan Williams suggested that a congregational hymn be included. This was approved by the Queen and the Archbishop of Canterbury, so Vaughan Williams recast his 1928 arrangement ofOld 100th, the Englishmetrical version ofPsalm 100, theJubilate Deo ("All people that on earth do dwell") for congregation, organ and orchestra: the setting has become ubiquitous at festal occasions in the Anglophone world.[122] At the 2023 coronation, new compositions were byRoxanna Panufnik,Tarik O'Regan,Andrew Lloyd Webber andDebbie Wiseman. Other innovations included a piece performed by aGospel choir and a psalm sung inByzantine chant.[123][124]
Several participants in the ceremony wear special costumes, uniforms or robes. For those in attendance (other than members of the royal family) what to wear is laid down in detail by the Earl Marshal prior to each Coronation and published inThe London Gazette.[citation needed]
The sovereign wears a variety of robes and other garments during the course of the ceremony. In contrast to the history and tradition which surround theregalia, it has been customary for most coronation robes to be newly made for each monarch.[126] However, at the 2023 coronation, vestments were largely reused from previous coronations instead.[127]
Worn for the first part of the service (and the processions beforehand):
Worn over the surcoat for the Anointing:
Robes with which the Sovereign is invested (worn thereafter until Communion):
Worn for the final part of the service (and the processions which follow):
Male sovereigns up to and includingGeorge VI have traditionally worn a crimsoncap of maintenance for the opening procession and when seated in the Chair of Estate during the first part of the service.Charles III arrived at his coronation bareheaded in 2023, rather than with the cap. Female sovereigns (and some female consorts) have traditionally worn theGeorge IV State Diadem, first worn by its namesake,George IV. For the Anointing, the sovereign is bareheaded, and remains so until the Crowning. Monarchs are usually crowned withSt Edward's Crown but some have chosen to use other crowns as it weighs 2.23 kg (4.9 lb). For the final part of the service, and the processions that follow, it is exchanged for the lighterImperial State Crown.[128]
Certain other members of the royal family wear distinctive robes, most particularlyqueens consort (includingdowagers) andprincesses of the United Kingdom, all of whom wear purple velvetmantles edged withermine over their court dresses. Other members of the royal family in attendance dress according to the conventions listed below, except thatroyal dukes wear a distinctive form of peer's robe, which has six rows of ermine on the cape and additional ermine on miniver edging to the front of the robe.[citation needed]
Queens consort in the 20th century arrived at their coronation bareheaded, and remained so until the point in the service when they were crowned with their owncrown. In the late 17th century and 18th century, queens consort woreMary of Modena's State Diadem.[129] Prior to the 20th century it was not usual fordowager queens to attend coronations, butQueen Mary andQueen Elizabeth The Queen Mother both attended the coronations of George VI and Elizabeth II respectively, and each wore the crown, minus its arches, with which she had been crowned for the duration of the service.[130][131]
Traditionally, princesses andprinces of the United Kingdom were provided with distinctive forms ofcoronet, which they wore during the service. A male heir-apparent's coronet displays four crosses-pattée alternating with four fleurs-de-lis, surmounted by an arch. The same style, without the arch, is used by other children and siblings of the monarch. The coronets of children of the heir-apparent display four fleurs-de-lis, two crosses-pattée and two strawberry leaves. A fourth style, including four crosses-pattée and four strawberry leaves, is used for the children of the sons and brothers of sovereigns. The tradition of coronets was abolished for the 2023 coronation, and members of the royal family dressed in robes of one of theirorders of chivalry.[132]
All peers and peeresses in attendance are "expected to wear" Robes of State, as described below.[133] These robes are different to theParliament Robe (worn on occasion by peers who are members of the House of Lords); all peers summoned to attend wear the Robe of State, regardless of membership of the House of Lords, and peeresses' robes are worn not only by women who are peers in their own right, but also by wives and widows of peers.[134][135] Those entitled to acollar of anorder of knighthood wear it over (and attached to) the cape.[citation needed]
A peer'scoronation robe is a full-lengthcloak-type garment of crimson velvet, edged down the front withminiver pure, with a fullcape (also of miniver pure) attached. On the cape, rows of "ermine tails (or the like)"[133] indicate the peer's rank: dukes have four rows, marquesses three and a half, earls three, viscounts two and a half, and barons and lords of parliament two.[citation needed] Prior to the 19th century peers also wore a matching crimson surcoat edged in miniver.
In 1953, "Peers taking part in the Processions or Ceremonies in Westminster Abbey" were directed to wear the Robe of State overfull-dress uniform (Naval,Military,RAF orcivil), if so entitled, or else over fullvelvet court dress (or one of the alternative styles of Court Dress, as laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's regulations). Other peers in attendance were "expected to wear the same if possible"; but the wearing ofevening dress, or a black suit with white bow tie, were also permitted (as was the use of a Parliament Robe or a mantle of one of theOrders of Knighthood by those not taking part in the Processions or Ceremonies).[133]
In 2023, the dress code for peers was originallylounge suits orparliamentary robes,[136][137] but this was changed in the week before the coronation after protests, with peers allowed to wear coronation robes but not coronets.[138]
A peeress's coronation robe is described as a long (trained) crimson velvetmantle, edged all round withminiver pure and having a cape of miniver pure (with rows ofermine indicating the rank of the wearer, as for peers).[139] Furthermore, the length of the train (and the width of the miniver edging) varies with the rank of the wearer: for duchesses, the trains are 1.8 m (2 yds) long, for marchionesses one and three-quarters yards, for countesses one and a half yards, for viscountesses one and a quarter yards, and for baronesses and ladies 90 cm (1 yd). The edgings are 13 cm (5 in) in width for duchesses, 10 cm (4 in) for marchionesses, 7.5 cm (3 in) for countesses and 5 cm (2 in) for viscountesses, baronesses and ladies.[citation needed]
This Robe of State is directed to be worn with a sleeved crimson velvetkirtle, which is similarly edged with miniver and worn over a full-length white or creamcourt dress (without a train).[citation needed]
During the Coronation, peers and peeresses formerly put oncoronets. Like their robes, their coronets are differentiated according to rank: the coronet of a duke or duchess is ornamented with eight strawberry leaves, that of a marquess or marchioness has four strawberry leaves alternating with four raised silver balls, that of an earl or countess eight strawberry leaves alternating with eight raised silver balls, that of a viscount or viscountess has sixteen smaller silver balls and that of a baron or baroness six silver balls. Peeresses' coronets are identical to those of peers, but smaller.[140] In addition, peeresses were told in 1953 that "a tiara should be worn, if possible".[133] The use of coronets was abolished for the 2023 coronation.
In 1953, those taking part in theProcession inside the Abbey who were not peers or peeresses were directed to wearfull-dress (naval,military,air force orcivil) uniform, or one of the forms of court dress laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's Regulations for Dress at Court. These regulations, as well as providing guidance for members of the public, specify forms of dress for a wide variety of office-holders and public officials, clergy, the judiciary, members of the Royal Household, etc. It also includes provision forScottish dress to be worn.[141]
Officers in the Armed Forces and the Civil, Foreign, and Colonial Services who did not take part in the Procession wore uniform, and male civilians: "one of the forms of court dress as laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's Regulations for Dress at Court, orevening dress with knee breeches or trousers, ormorning dress, or darklounge suits".[139]
Ladies attending in 1953 were instructed to wear "evening dresses or afternoon dresses, with a light veiling falling from the back of the head". Coats and hats were not permitted but tiaras could be worn.[citation needed]
In 1953 an additional note made it clear that "Oriental dress may be worn by Ladies and Gentlemen for whom it is the usual Ceremonial Costume".[139]
Since the 20th century it has been traditional for the newly crowned monarch and other members of the royal family to sit for official portraits atBuckingham Palace and appear on the balcony, from where in 1953 they watched a flypast by theRoyal Air Force.[142] During the appearance, the monarch wears the Imperial State Crown and, if there is one, the queen consort wears herconsort crown. In the evening, afireworks display is held nearby, usually inHyde Park.[143] In 1902,Edward VII's illness led to the postponement of a fourteen-course banquet at Buckingham Palace.[144] In 1953, two state banquets were held in the ballroom there, and classical music was provided by theRoyal Horse Guards.[145]
Historically, the coronation was immediately followed by a banquet held inWestminster Hall in thePalace of Westminster (which is also the home to the Houses of Parliament). TheKing or Queen's Champion (the office being held by theDymoke family in connection with theManor of Scrivelsby) would ride into the hall on horseback, wearing a knight's armour, with the Lord High Constable riding to his right and the Earl Marshal riding to his left. A herald would then make a proclamation of the readiness of the champion to fight anyone denying the monarch. After 1800, the form for this was as follows:[146]
If any person, of what degree soever, high or low, shall deny or gainsay our Sovereign Lord ..., King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, son and next heir unto our Sovereign Lord the last King deceased, to be the right heir to the Imperial Crown of this Realm of Great Britain and Ireland, or that he ought not to enjoy the same; here is his Champion, who saith that he lieth, and is a false traitor, being ready in person to combat with him; and in this quarrel will adventure his life against him, on what day soever he shall be appointed.[146]
The King's Champion would then throw down the gauntlet; the ceremony would be repeated at the centre of the hall and at the High Table (where the sovereign would be seated). The sovereign would then drink to the champion from a gold cup, which he would then present to the latter.[146] This ritual was dropped from thecoronation of Queen Victoria and was never revived. The offices ofChief Butler of England,Grand Carver of England andMaster Carver of Scotland were also associated with the coronation banquet.[147]
Banquets have not been held at Westminster Hall since thecoronation of George IV in 1821. His coronation was the most elaborate in history; his brother and successor William IV eliminated the banquet on grounds of economy,[26] ending a 632-year-old tradition.[148] Since 1901, a CoronationFleet Review has also been held. To celebrate the coronation, acoronation honours list is also released before the coronation.[citation needed]
Queen Victoria assumed the titleEmpress of India in 1876.[149] Adurbar (court) was held inDelhi, India on 1 January 1877 to proclaim her assumption of the title. The queen did not attend personally, but she was represented there by theViceroy,Lord Lytton.[150] A similar durbar was held on 1 January 1903 to celebrate the accession of Edward VII, who was represented by his brother theDuke of Connaught.[151] In 1911,George V also held a durbar which he and his wifeQueen Mary attended in person. Since it was deemed inappropriate for a Christian anointing and coronation to take place in a largely non-Christian nation, George V was not crowned in India; instead, he wore animperial crown as he entered the Durbar. Tradition prohibited the removal of the Crown Jewels from the United Kingdom; therefore, a separate crown, known as theImperial Crown of India, was created for him. The emperor was enthroned, and the Indian princes paid homage to him. Thereafter, certain political decisions, such as the decision to move the capital fromCalcutta to Delhi, were announced at the durbar. The ceremony was not repeated, and the imperial title was abandoned by George VI in 1948, 10 months afterIndia gained independence.[152]
Aside from kings and queens, the only individuals authorised to wear crowns (as opposed to coronets) are theKings of Arms, the United Kingdom's seniorheraldic officials.[153] Like the peers' coronets, these crowns are only put on at the actual moment of the monarch's crowning, after which they are worn for the rest of the service and its subsequent festivities.Garter,Clarenceaux, andNorroy and Ulster Kings of Arms have heraldic jurisdiction over England, Wales and Northern Ireland;[154] Lord Lyon King of Arms is responsible for Scotland.[155] In addition, there is a King of Arms attached to each of theOrder of the Bath,Order of St. Michael and St. George and theOrder of the British Empire. These have only a ceremonial role, but are authorised by the statutes of their orders to wear the same crown as Garter at a coronation.[156] The crown of a King of Arms is silver-gilt and consists of sixteenacanthus leaves alternating in height, and inscribed with the wordsMiserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam tuam (Latin: "Have mercy on me O God according to Thy great mercy", from Psalm 51).[153] TheLord Lyon King of Arms has worn a crown of this style at all coronations since that ofGeorge III. Prior to that he wore a replica of the Crown of Scotland. In 2004 a new replica of this crown was created for use by the Lord Lyon.[157]
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