Cornish (Standard Written Form:Kernewek orKernowek,[8]pronounced[kəɾˈnuːək]) is aSouthwestern Brittonic language of theCeltic language family. Along withWelsh andBreton, Cornish is descended from theCommon Brittonic language spoken throughout much ofGreat Britain before the English language came to dominate. For centuries, until it was pushed westwards by English, it was the main language ofCornwall, maintaining close links with its sister language Breton, with which it wasmutually intelligible, perhaps even as long as Cornish continued to be spoken as a vernacular.[9][10] Cornish continued to function as acommon community language in parts of Cornwall until the mid 18th century, and there is some evidence for traditional speakers of the language persisting into the 19th century.[11]
Cornish becameextinct as a living community language in Cornwall by theend of the 18th century, although knowledge of Cornish, including speaking ability to a certain extent, persisted within some families and individuals.[12]A revival started in the early 20th century, and in 2010UNESCO reclassified the language ascritically endangered, stating that its former classification of the language as extinct was no longer accurate.[13] The language has a growing number ofsecond-language speakers,[14] and a very small number of families now raise children to speak revived Cornish as afirst language.[15][16]
Cornish is currently recognised under theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages,[17] and the language is often described as an important part of Cornish identity, culture and heritage.[18][19] Since the revival of the language, some Cornish textbooks andworks of literature have been published, and an increasing number of people are studying the language.[14] Recent developments includeCornish music,[20]independent films,[21] and children's books. A small number of people in Cornwall have been brought up to bebilingual native speakers,[22][23] and the language is taught in schools and appears on street nameplates.[24][25][26] The first Cornish-languageday care opened in 2010.[27]
Joseph Loth viewed Cornish and Breton as being two dialects of the same language, claiming that "Middle Cornish is without doubt closer to Breton as a whole than the modern Breton dialect ofQuiberon [Kiberen] is to that ofSaint-Pol-de-Léon [Kastell-Paol]."[30] Also,Kenneth Jackson argued that it is almost certain that Cornish and Breton would have been mutually intelligible as long as Cornish was a living language, and that Cornish and Breton are especially closely related to each other and less closely related to Welsh.[31]
The area controlled by the southwestern Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion ofWessex over the next few centuries. During the Old Cornish (Kernewek Koth)[34] period (800–1200), the Cornish-speaking area was largely coterminous with modern-dayCornwall, after the Saxons had taken overDevon in their south-westward advance, which probably was facilitated by a second migration wave to Brittany that resulted in the partial depopulation of Devon.[35]
The first page ofVocabularium Cornicum, a 12th-century Latin-Cornish glossary
The earliest written record of the Cornish language comes from this period: a 9th-centurygloss in aLatinmanuscript ofDe Consolatione Philosophiae byBoethius, which used the wordsud rocashaas. The phrase may mean "it [the mind] hated the gloomy places",[36][37] or alternatively, asAndrew Breeze suggests, "she hated the land".[38] Other sources from this period include theSaints' List, a list of almost fifty Cornish saints,[39] theBodmin manumissions, which is a list ofmanumittors and slaves, the latter with mostly Cornish names,[40] and, more substantially, a Latin–Cornish glossary (theVocabularium Cornicum or Cottonian Vocabulary), a Cornish translation ofÆlfric of Eynsham's Latin–Old English Glossary,[41] which is thematically arranged into several groups, such as theGenesis creation narrative, anatomy, church hierarchy, the family, names for various kinds of artisans and their tools, flora, fauna, and household items.[42][43] The manuscript was widely thought to be inOld Welsh until the 18th century when it was identified as Cornish byEdward Lhuyd.[44] Some Brittonic glosses in the 9th-century colloquyDe raris fabulis were once identified as Old Cornish, but they are more likely Old Welsh, possibly influenced by a Cornish scribe.[45] No single phonological feature distinguishes Cornish from both Welsh and Breton until the beginning of theassibilation ofdental stops in Cornish, which is not found before the second half of the eleventh century,[46] and it is not always possible to distinguish Old Cornish, Old Breton, and Old Welsh orthographically.[47]
The opening verses ofOrigo Mundi, the first play of theOrdinalia (themagnum opus of medieval Cornish literature), written by an unknown monk in the late 14th centuryBeunans Meriasek (The life of St.Meriasek) (f.56v.) Middle Cornish Saint's Play
The Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Cornish (Kernewek Kres)[34] period (1200–1600), reaching a peak of about 39,000 speakers in the 13th century, after which the number started to decline.[48][49] This period provided the bulk of traditionalCornish literature, and was used to reconstruct the language during its revival. Most important is theOrdinalia, a cycle of three mystery plays,Origo Mundi,Passio Christi andResurrexio Domini. Together these provide about 8,734 lines of text. The three plays exhibit a mixture of English and Brittonic influences, and, like other Cornish literature, may have been written atGlasney College nearPenryn.[50] From this period also are thehagiographical dramasBeunans Meriasek (The Life ofMeriasek) andBewnans Ke (The Life ofKe), both of which feature as an antagonist the villainous and tyrannical KingTewdar (or Teudar), a historical medieval king in Armorica and Cornwall, who, in these plays, has been interpreted as a lampoon of either of theTudor kingsHenry VII orHenry VIII.[51]
Others are theCharter Fragment, the earliest known continuous text in the Cornish language, apparently part of a play about a medieval marriage,[52] andPascon agan Arluth (The Passion of Our Lord), a poem probably intended for personal worship, were written during this period, probably in the second half of the 14th century.[53] Another important text, theTregear Homilies, was realized to be Cornish in 1949, having previously been incorrectly classified as Welsh. It is the longest text in the traditional Cornish language, consisting of around 30,000 words of continuous prose. This text is a late 16th century translation of twelve ofBishop Bonner's thirteen homilies by a certain John Tregear, tentatively identified as a vicar ofSt Allen fromCrowan,[54] and has an additional catena, Sacrament an Alter, added later by his fellow priest, Thomas Stephyn.[55] In the reign of Henry VIII, an account was given byAndrew Boorde in his 1542Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge. He states, "In Cornwall is two speches, the one is naughty Englysshe, and the other is Cornysshe speche. And there be many men and women the which cannot speake one worde of Englysshe, but all Cornyshe."[56]
When Parliament passed theAct of Uniformity 1549, which established the 1549 edition of the English Book of Common Prayer as the sole legal form of worship in England, including Cornwall, people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand English. The passing of this Act was one of the causes of thePrayer Book Rebellion (which may also have been influenced by government repression after the failedCornish rebellion of 1497), with "the commoners of Devonshyre and Cornwall" producing a manifesto demanding a return to the old religious services and included an article that concluded, "and so we the Cornyshe men (whereof certen of us understande no Englysh) utterly refuse thys newe Englysh."[57] In response to their articles, the government spokesman (eitherPhilip Nichols orNicholas Udall) wondered why they did not just ask the king for a version of the liturgy in their own language.[58] ArchbishopThomas Cranmer asked why the Cornishmen should be offended by holding the service in English, when they had before held it inLatin, which even fewer of them could understand.[59]Anthony Fletcher points out that this rebellion was primarily motivated by religious and economic, rather than linguistic, concerns.[60] The rebellion prompted a heavy-handed response from the government, and 5,500 people died during the fighting and the rebellion's aftermath. Government officials then directed troops under the command ofSir Anthony Kingston to carry out pacification operations throughout the West Country. Kingston subsequently ordered the executions of numerous individuals suspected of involvement with the rebellion as part of the post-rebellion reprisals.[61]
The rebellion eventually proved a turning-point for the Cornish language, as the authorities came to associate it withsedition and "backwardness". This proved to be one of the reasons why the Book of Common Prayer was never translated into Cornish (unlikeWelsh), as proposals to do so were suppressed in the rebellion's aftermath. The failure to translate the Book of Common Prayer into Cornish led to the language's rapid decline during the 16th and 17th centuries.[62][63]Peter Berresford Ellis cites the years 1550–1650 as a century of immense damage for the language, and its decline can be traced to this period. In 1680William Scawen wrote an essay describing 16 reasons for the decline of Cornish, among them the lack of a distinctiveCornish alphabet, the loss of contact between Cornwall andBrittany, the cessation of the miracle plays, loss of records in the Civil War, lack of aCornish Bible and immigration to Cornwall.[64]Mark Stoyle, however, has argued that the 'glotticide' of the Cornish language was mainly a result of the Cornish gentry adopting English to dissociate themselves from the reputation for disloyalty and rebellion associated with the Cornish language since the 1497 uprising.[65]
By the middle of the 17th century, the language had retreated toPenwith andKerrier, and transmission of the language to new generations had almost entirely ceased. In hisSurvey of Cornwall, published in 1602,Richard Carew writes:
[M]ost of the inhabitants can speak no word of Cornish, but very few are ignorant of the English; and yet some so affect their own, as to a stranger they will not speak it; for if meeting them by chance, you inquire the way, or any such matter, your answer shall be, "Meea navidna caw zasawzneck," "I [will] speak no Saxonage."[66]
The Late Cornish (Kernewek Diwedhes)[34] period from 1600 to about 1800 has a less substantial body of literature than the Middle Cornish period, but the sources are more varied in nature, including songs, poems about fishing and curingpilchards, and various translations of verses from the Bible, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer and the Creed.[67] Edward Lhuyd'sArchaeologia Britannica, which was mainly recorded in the field from native speakers in the early 1700s, and his unpublished field notebook are seen as important sources of Cornish vocabulary, some of which are not found in any other source.[68]Archaeologia Britannica also features a complete version of a traditional folk tale,John of Chyanhor, a short story about a man fromSt Levan who goes far to the east seeking work, eventually returning home after three years to find that his wife has borne him a child during his absence.[69]
In 1776, William Bodinar, who describes himself as having learned Cornish from old fishermen when he was a boy, wrote a letter toDaines Barrington in Cornish, with an English translation, which was probably the last prose written in the traditional language. In his letter, he describes the sociolinguistics of the Cornish language at the time, stating that there are no more than four or five old people in his village who can still speak Cornish, concluding with the remark that Cornish is no longer known by young people.[70] However, the last recorded traditional Cornish literature may have been theCranken Rhyme,[71][72] a corrupted version of a verse or song published in the late 19th century byJohn Hobson Matthews, recorded orally byJohn Davey (or Davy) ofBoswednack, of uncertain date but probably originally composed during the last years of the traditional language. Davey had traditional knowledge of at least some Cornish.[73] John Kelynack (1796–1885), a fisherman of Newlyn, was sought byphilologists for old Cornish words and technical phrases in the 19th century.[74]
Dolly Pentreath (died 1777), said to be the last monolingual speaker of Cornish, in an engraved portrait published in 1781
It is difficult to state with certainty when Cornish ceased to be spoken, due to the fact that its last speakers were of relatively low social class and that the definition of what constitutes "a living language" is not clear cut. Peter Pool argues that by 1800 nobody was using Cornish as a daily language and no evidence exists of anyone capable of conversing in the language at that date.[75] However,passive speakers,semi-speakers andrememberers, who retain some competence in the language despite not being fluent nor using the language in daily life, generally survive even longer.
The traditional view thatDolly Pentreath (1692–1777) was thelast native speaker of Cornish has been challenged,[11] and in the 18th and 19th centuries there was academic interest in the language and in attempting to find the last speaker of Cornish. It has been suggested that, whereas Pentreath was probably the lastmonolingual speaker, the lastnative speaker may have beenJohn Davey of Zennor, who died in 1891.[76] However, although it is clear Davey possessed some traditional knowledge in addition to having read books on Cornish, accounts differ of his competence in the language. Some contemporaries stated he was able to converse on certain topics in Cornish whereas others affirmed they had never heard him claim to be able to do so.[75]Robert Morton Nance, who reworked and translated Davey's Cranken Rhyme, remarked, "There can be no doubt, after the evidence of this rhyme, of what there was to lose by neglecting John Davey."[77]
The search for the last speaker is hampered by a lack of transcriptions or audio recordings, so that it is impossible to tell from this distance whether the language these people were reported to be speaking was Cornish, or English with a heavy Cornishsubstratum, nor what their level of fluency was. Nevertheless, this academic interest, along with the beginning of theCeltic Revival in the late 19th century, provided the groundwork for a Cornish language revival movement.
Notwithstanding the uncertainty over who was the last speaker of Cornish, researchers have posited the following numbers for the prevalence of the language between 1050 and 1800.[48][49]
In 1904, the Celtic language scholar and Cornish cultural activistHenry Jenner publishedA Handbook of the Cornish Language. The publication of this book is often considered to be the point at which the revival movement started. Jenner wrote about the Cornish language in 1905, "one may fairly say that most of what there was of it has been preserved, and that it has been continuously preserved, for there has never been a time when there were not some Cornishmen who knew some Cornish."[78]
The revival focused on reconstructing and standardising the language, including coining new words for modern concepts, and creating educational material in order to teach Cornish to others. In 1929Robert Morton Nance published hisUnified Cornish (Kernewek Unys)[34] system, based on the Middle Cornish literature while extending the attested vocabulary with neologisms and forms based on Celtic roots also found in Breton and Welsh, publishing a dictionary in 1938.[79] Nance's work became the basis of revived Cornish (Kernewek Dasserghys)[34] for most of the 20th century. During the 1970s, criticism of Nance's system, including the inconsistent orthography and unpredictable correspondence between spelling and pronunciation,[12] as well as on other grounds such as the archaic basis of Unified and a lack of emphasis on the spoken language,[80] resulted in the creation of several rival systems. In the 1980s,Ken George published a new system,Kernewek Kemmyn ('Common Cornish'), based on a reconstruction of the phonological system of Middle Cornish, but with an approximatelymorphophonemic orthography.[81] It was subsequently adopted by the Cornish Language Board[82] and was the written form used by a reported 54.5% of all Cornish language users according to a survey in 2008,[83] but was heavily criticised for a variety of reasons by Jon Mills andNicholas Williams, including making phonological distinctions that they state were not made in the traditional languagec. 1500, failing to make distinctions that they believewere made in the traditional language at this time, and the use of an orthography that deviated too far from the traditional texts and Unified Cornish.[84][85] Also during this period,Richard Gendall created his Modern Cornish system (also known as Revived Late Cornish), which used Late Cornish as a basis,[86]: 46 and Nicholas Williams published a revised version of Unified;[86]: 46 however neither of these systems gained the popularity of Unified or Kemmyn.
The revival entered a period of factionalism and public disputes, with each orthography attempting to push the others aside. By the time that Cornish was recognised by the UK government under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2002, it had become recognised that the existence of multiple orthographies was unsustainable with regards to using the language in education and public life, as none had achieved a wide consensus. A process of unification was set about which resulted in the creation of the public-bodyCornish Language Partnership in 2005 and agreement on aStandard Written Form in 2008.[87][88] In 2010 a new milestone was reached when UNESCO altered its classification of Cornish, stating that its previous label of "extinct" was no longer accurate.[13]
Cornish can be seen in many places inCornwall; this sign is at Penzance railway station.
Speakers of Cornish reside primarily inCornwall, which has a population of 563,600 (2017 estimate). There are also some speakers living outside Cornwall, particularly in the countries of theCornish diaspora, as well as in otherCeltic nations. Estimates of the number of Cornish speakers vary according to the definition of a speaker, and is difficult to determine accurately due to the individualised nature of language take-up. Nevertheless, there is recognition that the number of Cornish speakers is growing.[14][89] From before the 1980s to the end of the 20th century there was a sixfold increase in the number of speakers to around 300.[90] One figure for the number of people who know a few basic words, such as knowing that "Kernow" means "Cornwall", was 300,000; the same survey gave the number of people able to have simple conversations as 3,000.[91]
The Cornish Language Strategy project commissioned research to provide quantitative and qualitative evidence for the number of Cornish speakers: due to the success of the revival project it was estimated that 2,000 people were fluent (surveyed in spring 2008), an increase from the estimated 300 people who spoke Cornish fluently suggested in a study byKenneth MacKinnon in 2000.[92][93][94]
Jenefer Lowe of theCornish Language Partnership said in an interview with the BBC in 2010 that there were around 300 fluent speakers.[95]Bert Biscoe, a councillor and bard, in a statement to theWestern Morning News in 2014 said there were "several hundred fluent speakers".[96]Cornwall Council estimated in 2015 that there were 300–400 fluent speakers who used the language regularly, with 5,000 people having a basic conversational ability in the language.[97]
A report on the 2011 Census published in 2013 by theOffice for National Statistics placed the number of speakers at somewhere between 325 and 625.[98] In 2017 theONS released data based on the 2011 Census that placed the number of speakers at 557 people in England and Wales who declared Cornish to be their main language, 464 of whom lived in Cornwall.[6] The 2021 census listed the number of Cornish speakers at 563.[99]
A study that appeared in 2018 established the number of people in Cornwall with at least minimal skills in Cornish, such as the use of some words and phrases, to be more than 3,000, including around 500 estimated to be fluent.[100]
The Institute of Cornish Studies at theUniversity of Exeter is working with the Cornish Language Partnership to study the Cornish language revival of the 20th century, including the growth in number of speakers.[101]
The view from Carn Brea beacon (Karn Bre) inPenwith (Pennwydh), nearCrows-an-Wra (Krows an Wragh), looking towards the village of Treave (Trev) withPorthcurno (Porthkornow) in the distance.
In 2002, Cornish was recognized by the UK government under Part II of theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[102]UNESCO'sAtlas of World Languages classifies Cornish as "critically endangered". UNESCO has said that a previous classification of 'extinct' "does not reflect the current situation for Cornish" and is "no longer accurate".[13]
Cornwall Council's policy is to support the language, in line with the European Charter. A motion was passed in November 2009 in which the council promoted the inclusion of Cornish, as appropriate and where possible, in council publications and on signs.[103] This plan has drawn some criticism.[104] In October 2015, the council announced that staff would be encouraged to use "basic words and phrases" in Cornish when dealing with the public.[105] In 2021 Cornwall Council prohibited a marriage ceremony from being conducted in Cornish as theMarriage Act 1949 only allowed for marriage ceremonies in English or Welsh.[106]
Until around the middle of the 11th century, Old Cornish scribes used a traditional spelling system shared with Old Breton and Old Welsh, based on the pronunciation ofBritish Latin.[110][111] By the time of theVocabularium Cornicum, usually dated to around 1100, Old English spelling conventions, such as the use ofthorn (Þ, þ) andeth (Ð, ð) fordental fricatives, andwynn (Ƿ, ƿ) for /w/, had come into use, allowing documents written at this time to be distinguished from Old Welsh, which rarely uses these characters, and Old Breton, which does not use them at all.[112] Old Cornish features include using initial ⟨ch⟩, ⟨c⟩, or ⟨k⟩ for /k/, and, in internal and final position, ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨c⟩, ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, and ⟨g⟩ are generally used for the phonemes /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /β/, /ð/, and /ɣ/ respectively, meaning that the results of Brittoniclenition are not usually apparent from the orthography at this time.[113][110]
Middle Cornish orthography has a significant level of variation, and shows influence from Middle English spelling practices.[114]Yogh (Ȝ ȝ) is used in certain Middle Cornish texts, where it is used to represent a variety of sounds, including the dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/, a usage which is unique to Middle Cornish and is never found in Middle English.[115][116] Middle Cornish scribes tend to use ⟨c⟩ for /k/ before back vowels, and ⟨k⟩ for /k/ before front vowels, though this is not always true, and this rule is less consistent in certain texts.[117] Middle Cornish scribes almost universally use ⟨wh⟩ to represent /ʍ/ (or /hw/), as in Middle English. Middle Cornish, especially towards the end of this period, tends to use orthographic ⟨g⟩ and ⟨b⟩ in word-final position in stressed monosyllables, and ⟨k⟩ and ⟨p⟩ in word-final position in unstressed final syllables, to represent the reflexes of late Brittonic /ɡ/ and /b/, respectively.[118]
Written sources from this period are often spelled following English spelling conventions since many of the writers of the time had not been exposed to Middle Cornish texts or the Cornish orthography within them. Around 1700, Edward Lhuyd visited Cornwall, introducing his own partly phonetic orthography that he used in hisArchaeologia Britannica, which was adopted by some local writers, leading to the use of some Lhuydian features such as the use ofcircumflexes to denote long vowels, ⟨k⟩ before front vowels, word-final ⟨i⟩, and the use of ⟨dh⟩ to represent the voiced dental fricative /ð/.[119][116]
After the publication of Jenner'sHandbook of the Cornish Language, the earliest revivalists used Jenner's orthography, which was influenced by Lhuyd's system. This system was abandoned following the development by Nance of a "unified spelling", later known asUnified Cornish, a system based on a standardization of the orthography of the early Middle Cornish texts.[120] Nance's system was used by almost all Revived Cornish speakers and writers until the 1970s.[121] Criticism of Nance's system, particularly the relationship of spelling to sounds and the phonological basis of Unified Cornish, resulted in rival orthographies appearing by the early 1980s,[122] including Gendal'sModern Cornish, based on Late Cornish native writers and Lhuyd, and Ken George'sKernewek Kemmyn, a mainlymorphophonemic orthography based on George's reconstruction of Middle Cornishc. 1500, which features a number of orthographic, and phonological, distinctions not found in Unified Cornish.[123][116] Kernewek Kemmyn is characterised by the use of universal ⟨k⟩ for /k/ (instead of ⟨c⟩ before back vowels as in Unified); ⟨hw⟩ for /hw/, instead of ⟨wh⟩ as in Unified; and ⟨y⟩, ⟨oe⟩, and ⟨eu⟩ to represent the phonemes /ɪ/, /o/, and /œ/ respectively, which are not found in Unified Cornish. Criticism of all of these systems, especially Kernewek Kemmyn, by Nicolas Williams,[124] resulted in the creation of Unified Cornish Revised, a modified version of Nance's orthography, featuring: an additional phoneme not distinguished by Nance, "ö in Germanschön", represented in the UCR orthography by ⟨ue⟩; replacement of ⟨y⟩ with ⟨e⟩ in many words; internal ⟨h⟩ rather than ⟨gh⟩; and use of final ⟨b⟩, ⟨g⟩, and ⟨dh⟩ in stressed monosyllables.[125] AStandard Written Form, intended as a compromise orthography for official and educational purposes, was introduced in 2008, although a number of previous orthographic systems remain in use and, in response to the publication of the SWF, another new orthography,Kernowek Standard, was created, mainly by Nicholas Williams and Michael Everson, which is proposed as an amended version of the Standard Written Form.[126]
The phonological system of Old Cornish, inherited from Proto-Southwestern Brittonic and originally differing little from Old Breton and Old Welsh, underwent various changes during its Middle and Late phases, eventually resulting in several characteristics not found in the other Brittonic languages. The first sound change to distinguish Cornish from both Breton and Welsh, theassibilation of the dental stops/t/ and/d/ in medial and final position, had begun by the time of theVocabularium Cornicum,c. 1100 or earlier.[127] This change, and the subsequent, or perhaps dialectical,palatalization (or occasionalrhotacization in a few words) of these sounds, results in orthographic forms such as Middle Cornishtas 'father', Late Cornishtâz (Welshtad), Middle Cornishcresy 'believe', Late Cornishcregy (Welshcredu), and Middle Cornishgasa 'leave', Late Cornishgara (Welshgadael).[128] A further characteristic sound change,pre-occlusion, occurred during the 16th century, resulting in the nasals/nn/ and/mm/ being realised as[ᵈn] and[ᵇm] respectively in stressed syllables, and giving Late Cornish forms such aspedn 'head' (Welshpen) andkabm 'crooked' (Welshcam).[128]
As arevitalised language, the phonology of contemporary spoken Cornish is based on a number of sources,[129] including variousreconstructions of the sound system of middle and early modern Cornish based on an analysis of internal evidence such as the orthography and rhyme used in the historical texts,[123][130][131]comparison with the other Brittonic languages Breton and Welsh,[132][133] and the work of the linguistEdward Lhuyd, who visited Cornwall in 1700 and recorded the language in a partly phonetic orthography.[134][135]
Cornish is a Celtic language, and the majority of its vocabulary, when usage frequency is taken into account, at every documented stage of its history is inherited direct fromProto-Celtic,[136] either through the ancestralProto-Indo-European language, or through vocabulary borrowed from unknown substrate language(s) at some point in the development of the Celtic proto-language from PIE.[137] Examples of the PIE > PCelt. development are various terms related to kinship and people, includingmam 'mother',modereb 'aunt, mother's sister',huir 'sister',mab 'son',gur 'man',den 'person, human', andtus 'people', and words for parts of the body, includinglof 'hand' anddans 'tooth'.[138] Inherited adjectives with an Indo-European etymology includenewyth 'new',ledan 'broad, wide',rud 'red',hen 'old',iouenc 'young', andbyw 'alive, living'.[139]
Several Celtic or Brittonic words cannot be reconstructed to Proto-Indo-European, and are suggested to have been borrowed from unknown substrate language(s) at an early stage, such as Proto-Celtic or Proto-Brittonic. Proposed examples in Cornish includecoruf 'beer' andbroch 'badger'.[140]
Other words in Cornish inherited direct from Proto-Celtic include a number of toponyms, for examplebre 'hill',din 'fort', andbro 'land',[141] and a variety of animal names such aslogoden 'mouse',mols 'wether',mogh 'pigs', andtarow 'bull'.[142]
During the Roman occupation of Britain a large number (around 800) of Latin loan words entered the vocabulary of Common Brittonic, which subsequently developed in a similar way to the inherited lexicon.[141] These includebrech 'arm' (fromBritish Latinbracc(h)ium),ruid 'net' (fromretia), andcos 'cheese' (fromcaseus).[143]
A substantial number of loan words from English and to a lesser extent French entered the Cornish language throughout its history. Whereas only 5% of the vocabulary of the Old Cornish Vocabularium Cornicum is thought to be borrowed from English, and only 10% of the lexicon of the early modern Cornish writer William Rowe, around 42% of the vocabulary of the whole Cornish corpus is estimated to be English loan words, without taking frequency into account. (However, when frequencyis taken into account, this figure for the entire corpus drops to 8%.)[136] The many English loanwords, some of which were sufficiently well assimilated to acquire native Cornish verbal or plural suffixes or be affected by the mutation system, includeredya 'to read',onderstondya 'to understand',ford 'way',hos 'boot' andcreft 'art'.[144][136]
Many Cornish words, such as mining and fishing terms, are specific to the culture of Cornwall. Examples includeatal 'mine waste' andbeetia 'to mend fishing nets'.Foogan andhogan are different types of pastries.Troyl is a 'traditional Cornish dance get-together' andFurry is a specific kind of ceremonial dance that takes place in Cornwall.[145] Certain Cornish words may have several translation equivalents in English, so for instancelyver may be translated into English as either 'book' or 'volume' anddorn can mean either 'hand' or 'fist'.As in other Celtic languages, Cornish lacks a number of verbs commonly found in other languages, including modals and psych-verbs;[44] examples are 'have', 'like', 'hate', 'prefer', 'must/have to' and 'make/compel to'. These functions are instead fulfilled byperiphrastic constructions involving a verb and various prepositional phrases.
The grammar of Cornish shares with other Celtic languages a number of features which, while not unique, are unusual in an Indo-European context. The grammatical features most unfamiliar to English speakers of the language are the initialconsonant mutations, theverb–subject–object word order,inflected prepositions, fronting of emphasised syntactic elements and the use of two different forms for 'to be'.
Cornish has initialconsonant mutation: The first sound of a Cornish word may change according to grammatical context. As in Breton, there are four types of mutation in Cornish (compared with three inWelsh, two inIrish andManx and one inScottish Gaelic). These changes apply to only certain letters (sounds) in particular grammatical contexts, some of which are given below:[146]
Cornish has no indefinitearticle.Porth can either mean 'harbour'[147] or 'a harbour'. In certain contexts,unn can be used, with the meaning 'a certain, a particular', e.g.unn porth 'a certain harbour'. There is, however, a definite articlean 'the', which is used for all nouns regardless of their gender or number, e.g.an porth 'the harbour'.[148]
Cornish nouns belong to one of twogrammatical genders, masculine and feminine, but are not inflected forcase. Nouns may be singular or plural. Plurals can be formed in various ways, depending on the noun:[149]
Vowel change:
toll 'hole' >tell 'holes'
Addition of a specific plural suffix:
el 'angel' >eledh 'angels'
tas 'father' >tasow 'fathers'
gwikor 'peddler' >gwikoryon 'peddlers'
Suppletion:
den 'man' >tus 'men, people'
Some nouns are collective or mass nouns. Singulatives can be formed from collective nouns by the addition of the suffix ⫽-enn⫽ (SWF-en):
Verbs areconjugated forperson,number,tense andmood. For example, theverbal noungweles 'see' has derived forms such as 1st person singular present indicativegwelav 'I see', 3rd person plural imperfect indicativegwelens 'they saw', and 2nd person singular imperativegwel 'see!'[150] Grammatical categories can be indicated either by inflection of the main verb, or by the use of auxiliary verbs such asbos 'be' orgul 'do'.[151]
Cornish usesinflected (orconjugated)prepositions: Prepositions are inflected for person and number. For example,gans (with, by) has derived forms such asgenev 'with me',ganso 'with him', andgenowgh 'with you (plural)'.[152]
When affirmative statements are in the less common VSO order, they usually begin with an adverb or other element, followed by an affirmative particle, with the verb inflected for person and tense:
Commemorative plaque in Cornish and English forMichael Joseph the Smith (An Gof) mounted on the north side ofBlackheath common, south east London, near the south entrance to Greenwich Park
TheCeltic Congress andCeltic League are groups that advocate cooperation amongst the Celtic Nations in order to protect and promote Celtic languages and cultures, thus working in the interests of the Cornish language.
There have been films such asHwerow Hweg, some televised, made entirely, or significantly, in Cornish. Some businesses use Cornish names.[163][164]
Cornish has significantly and durably affected Cornwall's place-names as well asCornish surnames and knowledge of the language helps the understanding of these ancient meanings. Cornish names are adopted for children, pets, houses and boats.[165]
There is Cornish literature, including spoken poetry and song, as well as traditional Cornish chants historically performed in marketplaces during religious holidays and public festivals and gatherings.
There are periodicals solely in the language, such as the monthlyAn Gannas,An Gowsva andAn Garrick.BBC Radio Cornwall has a news broadcast in Cornish and sometimes has other programmes and features for learners and enthusiasts. Local newspapers such as theWestern Morning News have articles in Cornish, and newspapers such asThe Packet,The West Briton, andThe Cornishman have also been known to have Cornish features. There is an online radio and TV service in Cornish calledRadyo an Gernewegva, publishing a one-hour podcast each week, based on a magazine format. It includes music in Cornish as well as interviews and features.[166]
Cornwall has had cultural events associated with the language, including the internationalCeltic Media Festival, hosted inSt Ives in 1997. TheOld Cornwall Society has promoted the use of the language at events and meetings. Two examples of ceremonies that are performed in both the English and Cornish languages areCrying the Neck[169] and the annual mid-summer bonfires.[170]
Since 1969, there have been three full performances of theOrdinalia, originally written in the Cornish language, the most recent of which took place at theplen-an-gwary inSt Just in September 2021. While significantly adapted from the original, as well as using mostly English-speaking actors, the plays used sizable amounts of Cornish, including a character who spoke only in Cornish and another who spoke both English and Cornish. The event drew thousands over two weeks, also serving as a celebration ofCeltic culture. The next production, scheduled for 2024, could, in theory, be entirely in Cornish, without English, if assisted by a professional linguist.[171][172][173][174]
Outside of Cornwall, efforts to revive the Cornish language and culture through community events are occurring in Australia. A biennial festival, Kernewek Lowender, takes place in South Australia, where both cultural displays and language lessons are offered.[175]
Cornish is taught in some schools; it was previously taught at degree level at theUniversity of Wales, though the only existing course in the language at university level is as part of a course in Cornish studies at theUniversity of Exeter.[176] In March 2008 a course in the language was started as part of the Celtic Studies curriculum at theUniversity of Vienna, Austria.TheUniversity of Cambridge offers courses in Cornish through its John Trim Resources Centre, which is part of the university's Language Centre.[177] In addition, theDepartment of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic (which is part of the Faculty of English) also carries out research into the Cornish language.[178]
In 2015 a university-level course aiming at encouraging and supporting practitioners working with young children to introduce the Cornish language into their settings was launched. TheCornish Language Practice Project (Early Years) is alevel 4 course approved byPlymouth University and run atCornwall College. The course is not a Cornish-language course but students will be assessed on their ability to use the Cornish language constructively in their work with young children. The course will cover such topics asUnderstanding Bilingualism,Creating Resources andIntegrating Language and Play, but the focus of the language provision will be on Cornish. A non-accredited specialist Cornish-language course has been developed to run alongside the level 4 course for those who prefer tutor support to learn the language or develop their skills for use with young children.[179]
Cornwall's first Cornish-languagecrèche,Skol dy'Sadorn Kernewek, was established in 2010 at Cornwall College,Camborne. The nursery teaches children aged between two and five years alongside their parents to ensure the language is also spoken in the home.[93]
A number of dictionaries are available in the various orthographies, includingA Learners' Cornish Dictionary in the Standard Written Form by Steve Harris (ed.),An Gerlyver Meur byKen George,[180]Gerlyver Sawsnek–Kernowek by Nicholas Williams andA Practical Dictionary of Modern Cornish byRichard Gendall. Course books include the three-partSkeul an Yeth series,Clappya Kernowek,Tavas a Ragadazow andSkeul an Tavas, as well as the more recentBora Brav andDesky Kernowek. Several online dictionaries are now available, including one organised by An Akademi Kernewek in SWF.[181][182]
Classes and conversation groups for adults are available at several locations in Cornwall as well as inLondon,Cardiff andBristol.[183] Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic a number of conversation groups entitledYeth an Werin Warlinen have been held online, advertised through Facebook and other media. A surge in interest, not just from people in Cornwall but from all over the world, has meant that extra classes have been organised.[184][185][186]
William Scawen produced a manuscript on the declining Cornish language that continually evolved until he died in 1689, aged 89. He was one of the first to realise the language was dying out and wrote detailed manuscripts which he started working on when he was 78. The only version that was ever published was a short first draft but the final version, which he worked on until his death, is a few hundred pages long.[187] At the same time a group of scholars led byJohn Keigwin (nephew of William Scawen) of Mousehole tried to preserve and further the Cornish language and chose to write in Cornish. One of their number,Nicholas Boson, tells how he had been discouraged from using Cornish to servants by his mother.[188] This group left behind a large number of translations of parts of the Bible, proverbs and songs. They were contacted by the Welsh linguistEdward Lhuyd, who came to Cornwall to study the language.[189]
Early Modern Cornish was the subject of a study published by Lhuyd in 1707,[190] and differs from the medieval language in having a considerably simpler structure and grammar. Such differences included sound changes and more frequent use of auxiliary verbs.[191] The medieval language also possessed two additional tenses for expressing past events and an extended set of possessive suffixes.
John Whitaker, the Manchester-born rector ofRuan Lanihorne, studied the decline of the Cornish language. In his 1804 workthe Ancient Cathedral of Cornwall he concluded that: "[T]he English Liturgy, was not desired by the Cornish, but forced upon them by the tyranny of England, at a time when the English language was yet unknown in Cornwall. This act of tyranny was at once gross barbarity to the Cornish people, and a death blow to the Cornish language."[192]
Robert Williams published the first comprehensive Cornish dictionary in 1865, theLexicon Cornu-Britannicum. As a result of the discovery of additional ancient Cornish manuscripts, 2000 new words were added to the vocabulary byWhitley Stokes inA Cornish Glossary. William C. Borlase publishedProverbs and Rhymes in Cornish in 1866 whileA Glossary of Cornish Names was produced by John Bannister in the same year.Frederick Jago published hisEnglish–Cornish Dictionary in 1882.
In 2002, the Cornish language gained new recognition because of the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages. Conversely, along with government provision was the governmental basis of "New Public Management", measuring quantifiable results as means of determining effectiveness. This put enormous pressure on finding a single orthography that could be used in unison. The revival of Cornish required extensive rebuilding. The Cornish orthographies that were reconstructed may be considered versions of Cornish because they are not traditional sociolinguistic variations. In the middle-to-late twentieth century, the debate over Cornish orthographies angered more people because several language groups received public funding. This caused other groups to sense favouritism as playing a role in the debate.[193]
A governmental policymaking structure called New Public Management (NPM) has helped the Cornish language by managing public life of the Cornish language and people. In 2007, theCornish Language Partnership MAGA represents separate divisions of government and their purpose is to further enhance the Cornish Language Developmental Plan. MAGA established an Ad-Hoc Group, which resulted in three orthographies being presented. The relations for the Ad-Hoc Group were to obtain consensus among the three orthographies and then develop a "single written form". The result was creating a new form of Cornish, which had to be natural for both new learners and skilled speakers.[194]
In 1981, theBreton libraryPreder editedPassyon agan arluth (Passion of our lord), a 15th-century Cornish poem.[195] The first completetranslation of the Bible into Cornish, translated from English, was published in 2011. Another Bible translation project translating from original languages is underway. TheNew Testament andPsalms were made available online onYouVersion (Bible.com) and Bibles.org in July 2014 by the Bible Society.
An Gannas is a monthly magazine published entirely in the Cornish language. Members contribute articles on various subjects. The magazine is produced by Graham Sandercock who has been its editor since 1976.[213]
In 1983BBC Radio Cornwall started broadcasting around two minutes of Cornish every week. In 1987, however, they gave over 15 minutes of airtime on Sunday mornings for a programme calledKroeder Kroghen ('Holdall'), presented by John King, running until the early 1990s.[214] It was eventually replaced with a five-minute news bulletin calledAn Nowodhow ('The News'). The bulletin was presented every Sunday evening for many years byRod Lyon, then Elizabeth Stewart, and currently a team presents in rotation.[215]Pirate FM ran short bulletins on Saturday lunchtimes from 1998 to 1999. In 2006, Matthew Clarke who had presented the Pirate FM bulletin, launched a web-streamed news bulletin calledNowodhow an Seythen ('Weekly News'), which in 2008 was merged into a new weekly magazine podcastRadyo an Gernewegva (RanG).
Cornish television shows have included a 1982 series byWestward Television with each episode containing a three-minute lesson in Cornish.[216]An Canker-Seth, an eight-episode series produced byTelevision South West and broadcast between June and July 1984, later onS4C from May to July 1985, and as a schools programme in 1986.[217] Also by Television South West were two bilingual programmes on Cornish Culture calledNosweyth Lowen.[216]In 2016 Kelly's Ice Cream ofBodmin introduced a light hearted television commercial in the Cornish language and this was repeated in 2017.[218]
The first episode from the third season of the US television programDeadwood features a conversation between miners, purportedly in the Cornish language, but really inIrish.[219] One of the miners is then shot by thugs working for businessmanGeorge Hearst who justify the murder by saying, "He come at me with his foreign gibberish."
A number of Cornish language films have been made, includingHwerow Hweg, a 2002 drama film written and directed by Hungarian film-maker Antal Kovacs andTrengellick Rising, a short film written and directed byGuy Potter.
Screen Cornwall works with Cornwall Council to commission a short film in the Cornish language each year, with their FilmK competition. Their website states "FylmK is an annual contemporary Cornish language short film competition, producing an imaginative and engaging film, in any genre, from distinctive and exciting filmmakers".[220]
A monthly half-hour online TV show began in 2017 calledAn Mis (The Month). It contained news items about cultural events and more mainstream news stories all through Cornish. It also ran a cookery segment called "Kegin Esther" ('Esther's Kitchen').[221]
English composerPeter Warlock wrote a Christmas carol in Cornish (setting words by Henry Jenner).[222] The Cornish electronic musicianAphex Twin has used Cornish names for track titles, most notably on hisDrukqs album.
In 2018, the singerGwenno Saunders released an album in Cornish, entitledLe Kov, saying: "I speak Cornish with my son: if you're comfortable expressing yourself in a language, you want to share it."[223]
The Cornish language features in thetoponymy of Cornwall, with a significant contrast between English place-names prevalent in eastern Cornwall and Cornish place-names to the west of the Camel-Fowey river valleys, where English place-names are much less common.[224] Hundreds of Cornish family names have an etymology in the Cornish language, the majority of which are derived from Cornish place-names.[225] Long before the agreement of theStandard Written Form of Cornish in the 21st century, Late Cornish orthography in theEarly Modern period usually followed Welsh to English transliteration, phonetically rendering C for K, I for Y, U for W, and Z for S. This meant that place names were adopted into English with spellings such as 'Porthcurno' and 'Penzance'; they are writtenPorth Kernow andPen Sans in the Standard Written Form of Cornish, agreed upon in 2008. Likewise words such asEnys ('island') can be found spelled asInce as atInce Castle. These apparent mistransliterations can, however, reveal an insight into how names and places were actually pronounced, explaining, for example, how anglicisedLaunceston is still pronounced [ˈlansǝn] with emphasis on the first element,[226] perhaps from CornishLann Stefan, though theConcise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names considers this unlikely.[227]
The following tables present some examples of Cornish place names and surnames and their anglicised versions:
^Pool, P. A. S. (1975).William Bodinar's letter, 1776. Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall.OCLC927038181.[In 1746] Captain Samuel Barrington, in the course of naval duties, took a sailor from Mount's Bay who spoke Cornish well enough to make himself understood to Bretons
^abBerresford Ellis, Peter (1990).The Story of the Cornish Language. Tor Mark Press. pp. 19–25.ISBN0850253713.Of John Davey of Zenmor who died in 1891, it was claimed that he was the last surviving native speaker of the language. His stone memorial reads 'John Davey 1812-1891 of Boswednack in this parish ... who was the last to possess any traditional considerable knowledge of the Cornish Language.'
^abMackinnon, Ken. "Cornish at Its Millennium: An Independent Study of the Language".Cornish Studies.10.
^Jenner, Henry (1904).A Handbook of the Cornish Language Chiefly in Its Latest Stages with Some Account of Its History and Literature. London: David Nutt.
^Williams, N. J. A. (1990)."A Problem in Cornish Phonology". In Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James; Poppe, Erich; Rowland, Jenny (eds.).Celtic Linguistics / Ieithyddiaeth Geltaidd. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory No. 68. Vol. 68. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 241.doi:10.1075/cilt.68.20wil.ISBN9789027235657. Retrieved18 September 2021.
^Mills, Jon (2013). "The Vocabularium Cornicum: A Cornish vocabulary?".Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie.60 (1):141–150.doi:10.1515/zcph.2013.009.S2CID161927698.
^George, Ken J. (1991). "Notes on word order in Beunans Meriasek".Studies in Brythonic Word Order. "Current Issues in Linguistic Theory" series. Vol. 83. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. p. 205.doi:10.1075/cilt.83.06geo.ISBN9789027235800.
^"Bonfire".RedruthOldCornwall.org. Redruth Old Cornwall Society. 26 May 2012. Archived fromthe original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved11 November 2012.
^Lhuyd, Edward (1707).Archæologia Britannica: Giving some account additional to what has been hitherto publish'd, of the languages, histories and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain, from collections and observations in travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas-Bretagne, Ireland, and Scotland; Vol. I. Glossography. Oxford: Edward Lhuyd and Mr. Bateman.
^Jago, Fred W. P. (1983) [1882].The Ancient Language and the Dialect of Cornwall. New York: AMS Press. p. 4. Originally published in Netherton and Worth, Truro.
^Holmes, Clive (1998). "Review ofFaction and Faith. Politics and Religion of the Cornish Gentry before the Civil War; Law, Order and Government in Caernarfonshire, 1558–1640 by Anne Duffin;Law, Order and Government in Caernarfonshire, 1558–1640. Justices of the Peace and the Gentry by John Gwynfor Jones".The English Historical Review.113 (450):177–179.doi:10.1093/ehr/CXIII.450.177.JSTOR576240.
Everson, Michael (2007)A Proposed Standard Written Form of Cornish. Cornish Language Partnership Process
Ferdinand, Siarl (2013). Brief History of the Cornish language, its Revival and its Current Situation.E-Keltoi, Vol. 2, 2 Dec pp. 199–227[3]
Jackson, Kenneth (1953)Language and History in Early Britain: A chronological survey of the Brittonic languages, first to twelfth century a.D. Edinburgh Uuniverty Ppress; 2nd ed. Dublin: Four Courts Press (1994) has a new introduction by William Gillies
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