The city centre is an island between two channels of theRiver Lee which meet downstream at its eastern end, where thequays anddocks along the river lead outwards towardsLough Mahon andCork Harbour, one of the largest natural harbours in the world.[8][9]
Cork was founded in the 6th century as a monastic settlement, and was expanded byViking invaders around 915. Its charter was granted byPrince John in1185. Cork city was once fully walled, and the remnants of the old medieval town centre can be found around South and North Main streets. The city'scognomen of "the rebel city" originates in its support for theYorkist cause in theWars of the Roses.[10] Corkonians sometimes refer to the city as "the real capital",[11] a reference to its opposition to theAnglo-Irish Treaty in theIrish Civil War.[12]
Cork was originally a monastic settlement, reputedly founded bySaint Finbar in the sixth century.[13] It became (more) urbanised some point between 915 and 922 whenNorseman (Viking) settlers founded a trading port.[14][15] It has been proposed that, likeDublin, Cork was an important trading centre in the global Scandinavian trade network.[16] The ecclesiastical settlement continued alongside the Vikinglongphort, with the two developing a type of symbiotic relationship; the Norsemen providing otherwise unobtainable trade goods for the monastery, and perhaps also military aid.[17]
Map of 16th-century CorkPatrick Streetc. 1890–1900
The city's charter was granted byPrince John, asLord of Ireland, in 1185.[18] The city was once fully walled, and some wall sections and gates remain today.[19] For much of the Middle Ages, Cork city was an outpost ofOld English culture in the midst of a predominantly hostileGaelic countryside and cut off from the English government inthe Pale around Dublin. Neighbouring Gaelic andHiberno-Norman lords extorted "Black Rent" from the citizens to keep them from attacking the city. The present extent of the city has exceeded the medieval boundaries of theBarony of Cork City; it now takes in much of the neighbouringBarony of Cork. Together, thesebaronies are located between theBarony of Barrymore to the east,Muskerry East to the west andKerrycurrihy to the south.
Workers clearing rubble on St Patrick's street following theBurning of Cork
The city's municipal government was dominated by about 12–15 merchant families, whose wealth came from overseas trade with continental Europe—in particular the export of wool and hides and the import of salt, iron and wine.
The medieval population of Cork was about 2,100 people. It suffered a severe blow in 1349 when almost half the townspeople died of plague when theBlack Death arrived in the town. In 1491, Cork played a part in the EnglishWars of the Roses whenPerkin Warbeck, a pretender to the English throne, landed in the city and tried to recruit support for a plot to overthrowHenry VII of England. The then-mayor of Cork and several important citizens went with Warbeck to England, but when the rebellion collapsed they were all captured and executed.
In the 18th century Cork sustained its trade with Continental Europe, and was known for the export of wool, yarn, tallow, and hides.[20] The title ofMayor of Cork that was established byroyal charter in 1318 was changed toLord Mayor in 1900 following the knighthood of the incumbent mayor byQueen Victoria on her visit to the city.[21]
The boundary was expanded in 1840, in 1955 and in 1965.[23][24][25]
In 2018, cabinet approval was given for a further extension of the Cork City boundary, to includeCork Airport,Douglas,Ballincollig and other surrounding areas.[26][27] Legislation to expand the boundary of the city, which would increase its area to 187 km2 (72 sq mi) and the population within its bounds from 125,000 to 210,000,[28] was debated and approved inDáil Éireann in June 2018.[29] Corresponding legislation was drafted during July 2018,[27] and enacted as part of theLocal Government Act 2019.[30][31] The boundary change occurred on 31 May 2019, following the2019 local elections.[4][32]
The climate of Cork, like the majority of Ireland, is mildoceanic (Cfb in theKöppen climate classification) and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes. Cork lies in planthardiness zone 9b.Met Éireann maintains a climatologicalweather station atCork Airport,[33] a few kilometres south of the city centre. The airport is at an altitude of 153 metres (502 ft) and temperatures can often differ by a few degrees between the airport and the rest of the city. There are also smaller synoptic weather stations atUCC and Clover Hill.[33] Due to its position on the coast, Cork city is subject to occasional flooding.[34]
Temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) or above 25 °C (77 °F) are rare. Cork Airport records an average of 1,239.2 millimetres (48.79 in) ofprecipitation annually, most of which is rain.[35] The airport records an average of 6.5 days of hail and 9.5 days of snow or sleet a year; though it only records lying snow for 2 days of the year. The low altitude of the city, and moderating influences of the harbour, mean that lying snow very rarely occurs in the city itself. At Cork airport, there are on average 218 "rainy" days a year (over 0.2 millimetres (0.008 in) of rainfall), of which there are 80 days with "heavy rain" (over 5 millimetres (0.2 in)).[35] Cork is also a generally foggy city, with an average of 97.8 days of fog a year, most common during mornings and winter. Despite this, however, Cork is also one of Ireland's sunniest cities, with an average of 4.04 hours of sunshine every day and only having 63.7 days where there is no "recordable sunshine", mostly during and around winter.[35]
Ranging in capacity from 50 to 1,000, the main music venues in the city are theCork Opera House (capacity c.1000), The Everyman, Cork Arts Theatre, Cyprus Avenue, Dali, Triskel Christchurch, The Roundy, and Coughlan's.[48]
Additions to the arts infrastructure include modern additions to theCrawford Municipal Art Gallery and renovations to the Cork Opera House in the early 21st century.[50] TheLewis Glucksman Gallery opened in the Autumn of 2004 at UCC, was nominated for theStirling Prize in the United Kingdom, and the building of a new €60 million School of Music was completed in September 2007.
Cork was theEuropean Capital of Culture for 2005, and in 2009 was included in theLonely Planet's top 10 "Best in Travel 2010". The guide described Cork as being "at the top of its game: sophisticated, vibrant and diverse".[51]
There is a "friendly rivalry" between Cork and Dublin,[52][53] similar to the first and second city rivalry betweenManchester andLondon orMelbourne andSydney.[54][55] Some Corkonians view themselves as different from the rest of Ireland, and refer to themselves as "The Rebels"; the county is known as the "Rebel County". This view sometimes manifests itself in humorous references to theReal Capital[54] and the propagation of t-shirts and street art celebrating the fictionalThe People's Republic of Cork.[56][57]
The city has many local traditions in food, includingcrubeens,tripe anddrisheen, which were historically served in eating houses like those run byKatty Barry in the mid-20th century.[58] TheEnglish Market sells locally produced foods, including fresh fish, meats, fruit and vegetables, eggs and artisan cheeses and breads. During certain city festivals, food stalls are also sometimes erected on city streets such asSt. Patrick's Street orGrand Parade.[59]
In September 2020, the food hallMarina Market was established in the docklands area of the city. A former warehouse, the Marina Market is an indoor, open-air space in which food vendors operate, and also incorporates an events space.[60] One year later in September 2021,The Black Market opened in theBallintemple area. The Black Market is a similar concept to the Marina Market.[61][62]Izz Cafe, aPalestinian restaurant which opened in the city in 2019, has won several awards.[63][64]
The Cork accent, part of the Southwest dialect ofHiberno-English, displays various features which set it apart from other accents in Ireland. Patterns of tone and intonation often rise and fall, with the overall tone tending to be more high-pitched than other Irish accents. English spoken in Cork has several dialect words that are peculiar to the city and environs. Like standardHiberno-English, some of these words originate from the Irish language, but others through other languages Cork's inhabitants encountered at home and abroad.[65] The Cork accent displays varying degrees ofrhoticity, usually indicative of the speaker's local community.
Broadcasting companies based in Cork includeRTÉ Cork, which has a radio, television and production unit on Father Matthew Street in the city centre.Communicorp Media opened a radio studio in 2019 in the city covering content on both Today FM and Newstalk.[66]
Cork is home to one of Ireland's main national newspapers, theIrish Examiner (formerly theCork Examiner). Its "sister paper",The Echo (formerly theEvening Echo), was for decades connected to the "Echo boys", who were poor and often homeless children who sold the newspaper.[citation needed] Today, the shouts of the vendors sellingThe Echo can still be heard in parts of the city centre. One of the biggest free newspapers in the city is theCork Independent.[70] The city's university publishes theUCC Express andMotley magazine.[71][72]
Cork features architecturally notable buildings originating from the Medieval to Modern periods.[73] The only notable remnant of the Medieval era is theRed Abbey. There are two cathedrals in the city;St. Mary's Cathedral andSaint Fin Barre's Cathedral. St Mary's Cathedral, often referred to as the North Cathedral, is theCatholic cathedral of the city and was begun in 1808. Its distinctive tower was added in the 1860s. St Fin Barre's Cathedral serves theChurch of Ireland (Anglican) and is possibly the more famous of the two. It is built on the foundations of an earlier cathedral. Work began in 1862 and ended in 1879 under the direction of architectWilliam Burges.
St. Patrick's Street, the main street of the city which was remodelled in the mid-2000s is known for the architecture of the buildings along its pedestrian-friendly route and is the main shopping thoroughfare. At its northern end is a landmark statue ofFather Mathew. The reason for its curved shape is that it was originally a channel of theRiver Lee which was built over arches.[74] The General Post Office, with its limestone façade, is onOliver Plunkett Street, on the site of theTheatre Royal which was built in 1760 and burned down in 1840. The English circus proprietorPablo Fanque rebuilt an amphitheatre on the spot in 1850, which was subsequently transformed into a theatre and then into the present General Post Office in 1877.[75][76]TheGrand Parade is a tree-lined avenue, home to offices, shops and financial institutions. The old financial centre is theSouth Mall, with several banks whose interiors derive from the 19th century, such as the interior of theAllied Irish Bank which was once an exchange.
Many of the city's buildings are in theGeorgian style, although there are a number of examples of modern landmark structures, such asCounty Hall tower, which was, at one time thetallest building in Ireland[77] until being superseded by another Cork building:The Elysian. Outside the County Hall is the landmark sculpture of two men, known locally as'Cha and Miah'. Across the river from County Hall is Ireland's longest building;[78] built inVictorian times,Our Lady's Psychiatric Hospital has now been partially renovated and converted into a residential housing complex called Atkins Hall, after its architectWilliam Atkins.[79]
Cork's most famous building is thechurch tower of St Anne in Shandon, which dominates the Northside of the city. It is widely regarded as the symbol of the city. The North and East sides are faced in red sandstone, and the West and South sides are clad in the predominant stone of the region, white limestone. At the top sits a weather vane in the form of an eleven-foot salmon.[80] Another site in Shandon isSkiddy's Almshouse, which was built in the 18th century to provide a home to the poorest of the city.
Cork City Hall replaced the hall destroyed by theBlack and Tans during the War of Independence in an event known as the "Burning of Cork".[22] The cost of this new building was provided by the UK Government in the 1930s as a gesture of reconciliation.[81]
Parks and amenity spaces includeFitzgerald's Park to the west of the city (which contains theCork Public Museum), the angling lake known asThe Lough,Bishop Lucey Park (which is centrally located and contains a portion of the old city wall) and the Marina and Atlantic Pond (an avenue and amenity nearBlackrock used by joggers, runners and rowing clubs).[83][84][85][86]
Up until April 2009, there were also two large commercial breweries in the city. TheBeamish and Crawford on South Main Street closed in April 2009 and transferred production to theMurphy's brewery in Lady's Well. This brewery also producesHeineken for the Irish market. There is also the Franciscan Well brewery, which started as an independent brewery in 1998 but has since been acquired by Coors.
Under theLocal Government (Ireland) Act 1898, it was made a county borough, governed by a county borough corporation. This was altered by theLocal Government Act 2001, under each of the five county boroughs became designated as cities, governed by city councils.Cork City Council is a tier-1 entity of local government with the same status in law as acounty council.
While the local government in Ireland has limited powers in comparison with other countries, the council has responsibility for planning, roads, sanitation, libraries, street lighting, parks, and several other important functions. Cork City Council has 31 elected members representing six electoral areas.
Cork City Hall is located along Albert Quay on the south side of the city. It officially opened on 8 September 1936, following the previous building being destroyed in the "Burning of Cork" in 1920. The administrative offices forCork County Council are also located within the city limits, on the Carrigrohane Road on the west side of the city.[91]
Other shopping arcades are in the city centre, including the "Cornmarket Centre" on Cornmarket Street, "Merchant's Quay Shopping Centre" on Merchant's Quay, home toDebenhams,Dunnes Stores andMarks & Spencer, and a retail street called Opera Lane off St. Patrick's Street/Academy Street. A mixed retail and office development, on the site of the former Capitol Cineplex, with approximately 5,600 square metres (60,000 ft2) of retail space, was opened in June 2017.[92][93] Retail tenants in this development include Facebook,AlienVault andHuawei.[94][95]
Cork's main shopping street isSt. Patrick's Street and is the most expensive in the country per sq. metre after Dublin'sGrafton Street. The area was impacted by thepost-2008 downturn, though retail growth has increased since, withPenneys announcing expansion plans in 2015,[96] redesigning of some facades on the street,[97] and opening of newer outlets, includingSuperdry in 2015.[98] Other shopping areas in the city centre includeOliver Plunkett St. andGrand Parade. Cork is home to some of the country's leading department stores with the foundations of shops such asDunnes Stores and the formerRoches Stores being laid in the city.
Cork City is a hub of industry in the region.[99] Several pharmaceutical companies have invested heavily in the area, including American companiesPfizer,Johnson & Johnson and Swiss companyNovartis.[100] Perhaps the most famous product of the Cork pharmaceutical industry isViagra. Cork is also the European headquarters ofApple Inc. where more than 6,000 staff are involved in manufacturing, R&D and customer support.[101]Logitech and Dell (formerly EMC Corporation) are also importantIT employers in the area.[102][103][104] Three hospitals are also among the top ten employers in the city.[105]
The city is also home to the Heineken Brewery that brewsMurphy's Irish Stout and the nearbyBeamish and Crawford brewery (taken over by Heineken in 2008) which have been in the city for generations. 45% of the world'sTic Tac sweets are manufactured at the city'sFerrero factory.[106] For many years, Cork was the home toFord Motor Company, which manufactured cars in the docklands area before the plant was closed in 1984.Henry Ford's grandfather was fromWest Cork, which was one of the main reasons for opening up the manufacturing facility in Cork.[107] Technology has since replaced the older manufacturing businesses of the 1970s and 1980s, with people now working at several IT companies across the city area—such asAmazon.com, the online retailer, which has offices atCork Airport Business Park.[108]
Cork's deep harbour allows large ships to enter, bringing trade and easy import/export of products.Cork Airport also allows easy access to continental Europe andCork Kent railway station in the city centre provides good rail links for domestic trade.
Public bus services within the city are provided by the national bus operatorBus Éireann. City routes are numbered 201 through 226 and connect the city centre to the principal suburbs, colleges, shopping centres and places of interest.[110] Prior to 2011 city routes were numbered 1 through 19; however, the introduction of real-time bus signage required the move to the 2xx namespace.[111] Two of these bus routes provide orbital services across the Northern and Southern districts of the city respectively. Buses to the outer suburbs and towns, such asBallincollig,Glanmire,Midleton andCarrigaline are provided from the city's bus terminal at Parnell Place in the city centre. Suburban services also include shuttles toCork Airport, and apark and ride facility in the south suburbs only.
The first 24-hour bus in Ireland, route 220, was initiated in Cork in January 2019.[112][113] The 220 links the two majorsatellite towns of Ballincollig and Carrigaline with the city centre and operates once an hour between the hours of 01:30 to 05:30.[114] One year after 24-hour service commenced, Bus Éireann announced they had witnessed a 70% growth in passenger numbers on the route, resulting in 1.3 million customer journeys.[112] Local politicians have called for the introduction of further 24-hour bus routes in the city owing to the success of the 220.[113][115][116]
Following the initial rollout of theBusConnects project in Dublin, as of October 2022 theNational Transport Authority (NTA) had entered the first-round of a consultation process for similar changes in Cork.[117] While the NTA said that they were applying lessons learned from the Dublin scheme, some Cork homeowners voiced concerns over proposed bus corridors and the possibility of losing parts of their gardens and on-street parking, the risk of devaluation of their homes, worries about the impact of construction on the structural integrity of their homes, the loss of hundreds of trees along roads, and the impact on trade which may arise from reduced on-street parking.[117] In anIrish Examiner article from October 2022, it was noted that at least one of the draft proposals, to build a road bridge over Ballybrack Woods inDouglas, had been dropped.[117] As of mid-2025, some of the Cork BusConnects changes were "due to be rolled out in phases from mid-2026".[118]
Long-distance buses depart from the bus terminal in Parnell Place to destinations throughout Ireland. Hourly services run toKillarney/Tralee,Waterford,Athlone and Shannon Airport/Ennis/Limerick/Galway and there are six services daily to Dublin.
Private operators include Irish Citylink,Aircoach and Dublin Coach. Irish Citylink serves Limerick and Galway. Aircoach operates an Express non-stop service which serves Dublin City Centre andDublin Airport 18 times daily in each direction. Dublin Coach serves Dublin via Waterford, Kilkenny and Red Cow.
The city's road infrastructure improved in the late 20th and early 21st century, including the early 1980s construction of the Cork South Linkdual carriageway which links the Kinsale Road roundabout with the city centre. Shortly after, the first sections of the South Ring dual carriageway were opened. Work continued extending theN25 South Ring Road through the 1990s, culminating in the opening of the Jack Lynch Tunnel under theRiver Lee. The Kinsale Road flyover opened in August 2006 to remove a bottleneck for traffic heading to Cork Airport or Killarney. Other projects completed at this time include theN20 Blackpool bypass and the N20 Cork to Mallow road projects. TheN22 Ballincollig dual carriageway bypass, which links to the Western end of the Cork Southern Ring road was opened in September 2004. City centre road improvements include the Patrick Street project—which reconstructed the street with a pedestrian focus. TheM8 motorway links Cork withDublin.
From 2012, cycle paths and bike stands were added in a number of areas.[121] Subsequently, in 2014, apublic bicycle rental scheme was launched. The scheme is operated by An Rothar Nua on behalf of theNational Transport Authority, with funding supplemented by an advertising sponsor.[122] The scheme supports 330 bikes with 31 stations placed around the city for paid public use.[123]
Cork was one of the most rail-oriented cities in Ireland, featuring eight stations at various times. The main route, still much the same today, is fromDublin Heuston. Originally terminating on the city's outskirts atBlackpool, the route now reaches the city centreterminus ofKent Station via the Glanmire tunnel andKilnap Viaduct.[124] Now a through station, the line through Kent connects the towns ofCobh andMidleton east of the city. This also connected to the seaside town ofYoughal, until the 1980s.[125]
Glanmire Road Station (now called Kent Station) c. 1890s
Other rail routes terminating or traversing Cork city were theCork, Blackrock and Passage Railway, a line toMacroom, theCork and Muskerry Light Railway toBlarney,Coachford andDonoughmore, as well as theCork, Bandon and South Coast Railway connectingBantry,Skibbereen,Clonakilty and many otherWest Cork towns. West Cork trains terminated at Albert Quay, across the river from Kent Station (though an on-street rail system connected the two for rolling stock and cargo movement). There have been two tram networks in operation Within the city. A proposal to develop a horse-drawn tram (linking the city's railway termini) was made by AmericanGeorge Francis Train in the 1860s and implemented in 1872 by the Cork Tramway Company. However, the company ceased trading in 1875 after Cork Corporation refused permission to extend the line.[126]
In December 1898, theCork Electric Tramways and Lighting Company began operating on the Blackpool–Douglas, Summerhill–Sunday's Well andTivoli–Blackrock routes. Increased usage of cars and buses in the 1920s led to a reduction in the use of trams, which discontinued operations permanently on 30 September 1931.
Cork is an important educational centre in Ireland—there are over 35,000 third-level students in the city, meaning the city has a higher ratio of students in the population than the national average.[129] Over 10% of the population of the Metropolitan area are students inUniversity College Cork (UCC) andMunster Technological University, (MTU), including nearly 3,000 international students from over 100 countries.[130] UCC is a constituent university of theNational University of Ireland and offers courses in arts, commerce, engineering, law, medicine and science. It has been named "Irish University of the Year" four times since 2003, most recently in 2016.[131] Munster Technological University (MTU)—formerlyCork Institute of Technology (CIT)—was named Irish "Institute of Technology of the Year" in 2007, 2010 and 2016 and offers third-level courses in Computing and IT, Business, Humanities and Engineering (Mechanical, Electronic, Electrical, and Chemical).
Research institutes linked to the third-level colleges in the city support the research and innovation capacity of the city and region. Examples include the Tyndall National Institute (ICT hardware research), IMERC (Marine Energy), Environmental Research Institute, NIMBUS (Network Embedded Systems); and CREATE (Advanced Therapeutic Engineering).[130] UCC and CIT also have start-up company incubation centres. At UCC, the IGNITE Graduate Business Innovation Centre aims to foster and support entrepreneurship.[133] In CIT, The Rubicon Centre is a business innovation hub that is home to 57 knowledge-based start-up companies.[134]
Cork City F.C. are the largest and most successful association football team in Cork, winning threeLeague of Ireland titles, fourFAI Cup titles, and one "All Ireland"Setanta Sports Cup title. They play their home games on the south side of the city inTurners Cross. Several, now defunct, Cork clubs played in the League of Ireland before 1984. In total, teams from the city have won the league 12 times. Association football is also played by amateur and school clubs across the city, as well as in"five-a-side"-style leagues.
Munster Rugby plays a number of its home matches in thePro14 atMusgrave Park in Ballyphehane. In the pastHeineken Cup matches have also been played at Musgrave Park, but most of these are now played atThomond Park inLimerick. In May 2006 and again in May 2008, Munster became theHeineken Cup champions, with many players hailing from Cork city and county.
There are a variety of watersports in Cork, includingrowing and sailing. There are five rowing clubs training on the river Lee, including Shandon BC, UCC RC, Pres RC, Lee RC, and Cork BC. Naomhóga Chorcaí is a rowing club whose members row traditionalnaomhóga on the Lee in occasional competitions. The "Ocean to City" race has been held annually since 2005 and attracts teams and boats from local and visiting clubs who row the 24 kilometres (15 mi) from Crosshaven into Cork city centre.[135] The National Rowing Center was moved to Inniscarra—approximately 12 km outside the city centre—in 2007.[136] Cork's maritime sailing heritage is maintained through its sailing clubs. TheRoyal Cork Yacht Club located inCrosshaven (outside the city) is the world's oldest yacht club, and "Cork Week" is a notable sailing event.[137]
The population of Cork City and its suburbs was recorded as 208,669 by the2016 census of Ireland,[160] with in excess of 300,000 in theMetropolitan Cork area.[161] Following the 2019 boundary extension, final results for the city from the2022 census showed a population of 224,004 people.[5]
There were 119,230 people present in the Cork City Council-administered area at the time of the 2011 census, of these 117,221 indicated that they were usually present in Cork. In common with other Irish urban centres, the female population (50.67%) was higher than the male population (49.33%), although the gap is somewhat smaller than in other cities.
In the 2011 census, of those usually resident, 100,901 (86.08%) were Irish citizens; 10,295 (8.78%) were citizens of other EU countries; 4,316 (3.68%) were citizens of countries elsewhere in the world; 1,709 (1.46%) did not state their citizenship.[163] By the2016 census, the population of the city and suburbs were 81% white Irish, 10% other white, 1.4% black/black Irish, 2.5% Asian/Asian Irish, 1.7% other, with 2.6% not stating an ethnicity.[164]
By the2022 census, the population of the city and suburbs were 74.4% white Irish, 9.9% other white, 1.47% black/black Irish, 4.1% Asian/Asian Irish, 2.3% other, with 7.1% not stating an ethnicity[165]
In terms of religion, the 2016 population was 76.4%Catholic, 8.1% other stated religion, with 12.8% having no religion and 2.7% not stated.[164] In the 2011 and 2016 censuses, Roman Catholicism was the most common religion in the city overall, followed by Anglicanism, Presbyterianism and Islam.[166] As of the 2016 census, an increasing number of residents (15%) indicated that they had no religion[167]—a higher rate of increase and a higher overall percentage than the national average (10%).[168][169] By the2022 census, Catholics represented 65% of the population, 9% were other religions and 26% either had no religion or stated no religion.[5] While Cork saw some Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe in the 19th century,[170] with second-generation immigrants likeGerald Goldberg holding public office, the community later declined and the synagogue closed.[171][172] Later immigrant communities retain their places of worship.[173][174]
^statiō bene fīdā carīnīs: literally "a good trust-station forkeels", adapted by inversion from Virgil'sAeneid (II, 23:statio male fida carinis, "an unsafe harbour"). Sometimes corrupted to "fide".
^"Cork 2050 Main Report"(PDF).Cork County Council. Cork County Council & Cork City Council. March 2017.Archived(PDF) from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved12 November 2018.
^Joyce, Patrick Weston (1923).Irish Local Names.Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved2 October 2019 – via libraryireland.com.
^Local Government Provisional Order Confirmation Act 1955 (No. 1P of 1955). Enacted on 16 March 1955. Act of theOireachtas. Retrieved fromIrish Statute Book on 3 January 2022.
^Local Government Provisional Order Confirmation Act 1965 (No. 2P of 1965). Enacted on 29 June 1965. Act of theOireachtas. Retrieved fromIrish Statute Book on 3 January 2022.
^Keohane, Kieran (2006). "The Accumulation of Cultural Capital in 'Cork: European City of Culture 2005'".The Irish Review (34):130–154.doi:10.2307/29736302.JSTOR29736302.As Manchester was to London, Lille was to Paris and Cork was to Dublin
^Roche, Barry (27 July 2004)."350 new jobs for Cork under US firm's EUR700m investment". Irish Times.Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved16 December 2016.Cork has seen a large concentration of [...] companies such as Pfizer, Novartis, Boston Scientific, Eli Lilly and Schering Plough, as well as Johnson & Johnson and GSK, all having significant operations in the area
^Lee, JJ (1981). "On the accuracy of the Pre-famine Irish censuses". In Goldstrom, J. M.; Clarkson, L. A. (eds.).Irish Population, Economy, and Society: Essays in Honour of the Late K. H. Connell. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
^"Area Profile – Cork City"(PDF).Census 2011 Results. Central Statistics Office.Archived(PDF) from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved7 June 2017.
Merchants, Mystics and Philanthropists – 350 Years of Cork Quakers Richard S. Harrison Published by Cork Monthly Meeting, Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) 2006ISBN978-0-9539542-1-6
Atlas of Cork City, edited by John Crowley, Robert Devoy, Denis Linehan and Patrick O'Flanagan. Illustrated by Michael Murphy. Cork University Press, 2005,ISBN1-85918-380-8.
Henry, Jefferies.A New History of Cork. History Press Ireland, 2010,ISBN978-1-84588-984-5.
McAvoy, Mark.Cork Rock: From Rory Gallagher To The Sultans Of Ping. Mercier Press (2009)ISBN978-1-85635-655-8.
Where Bridges Stand: the River Lee bridges of Cork City, Antóin O'Callaghan. History Press Ireland, 2012,ISBN978-1-84588-746-9.
Cork City Through Time, Kieran McCarthy & Daniel Breen. Stroud : Amberley, 2012,ISBN978-1-4456-1142-6.
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