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Coolness, or beingcool, is theaesthetic quality of something (such as attitude, behavior, appearance, orstyle) being compatible with currently admirablesocial norms of society or a group of people. Because of the varied and changing interpretation of what is consideredcool, as well as its subjective nature, the word has no single meaning. For most, coolness is associated with exemplifying composure andself-control.[1] When used in conversation, it is often as an expression of admiration or approval, and can be used when referencing both people and items of interest. Although commonly regarded as slang,cool is widely used among disparate social groups and has endured in usage for generations.
Below are some concise definitions that try to capture its different usages:
In contemporary informal English,cool is often used almost synonymously withhip,trendy orfashionable, especially for clothes, music and brands.[9]
In another sense,cool is used as a general positiveepithet or interjection, which can have a range of related adjectivalmeanings.
While slang terms are usually short-lived coinages andfigures of speech,cool is an especially ubiquitous slang word, most notably among young people. As well as being understood throughout the English-speaking world, the word has even entered the vocabulary of several languages outside English, and several languages have their own words for the concept.
The sum and substance of coolness is aself-conscious confidence in overall behavior, which entails a set of specificbehavioral characteristics that is firmly anchored insymbology, a set of discerniblebodily movements,postures,facial expressions, and voice modulations that are acquired and take on strategic social value within certain contexts.[10]
Cool was once an attitude fostered by rebels andunderdogs—such as slaves, prisoners,bikers, political dissidents, etc.—for whom open rebellion invited punishment, so they hid defiance behind a wall ofironic detachment, distancing that defiance from the source of authority rather than directly confronting it.[11]
In general, coolness is a trait based on the inference that a cultural object (e.g., a person or brand) isautonomous; that is, the person or brand is not constrained by certain existing "unnecessary" rules, expectations, or beliefs.[8]
A cultural ideal has emerged from this characteristic which is a socially admired way of being that combinesself-control, apparent effortlessness andemotional restraint. It is often shaped by artists, intellectuals and other tastemakers, then spread throughpopular media andyouth culture as a marker of identity and distinction. The ideal is associated withautonomy, distance fromauthority and the conversion of marginal or oppositional positions into style and prestige. Commercial industries draw on ideas of cool in branding and advertising, whilemarginalized communities have also used them as forms of protection or symbolic resistance.[12][13]
Cool is also used for describing a general state of calmness and well-being, or similarly, a transcendent, internal state of peace and serenity.[14] It can also refer to an absence of conflict, a state of harmony and balance, as in "the land is cool," or as in a "cool [spiritual] heart." Such meanings, according to Thompson, are African in origin. Cool is related in this sense to both social control and transcendental balance.[14]
Cool can similarly be used to describe composure and an absence of excitement or agitation in a person, especially in times of stress (as expressed in theidiomkeep one's cool).
The word can also express agreement or consent, as in the phrase, "I'm cool with that."
According to this theory, coolness is a subjective, dynamic, socially-constructed trait, such that it is subjective. People perceive things (e.g., other people, products or brands) to be cool based on an inference of "autonomy". That is, something is perceived to be cool when it follows its own motivations. However, this theory proposes that the level of autonomy that leads to coolness is constrained. An inappropriate level of autonomy that opposes a legitimate norm does not lead to perceptions of coolness. The level of autonomy considered appropriate is influenced by different variables for each individual. For example, people who think that societal institutions and authority are unjust or repressive equate coolness with higher levels of autonomy than those who are less critical of social norms and authority.[8]
According to this theory, coolness is a relative concept. In other words,cool exists only in comparison with things considered less cool. For example, in the bookThe Rebel Sell,cool is created out of a need for status and distinction. This creates a situation analogous to anarms race, in which cool is perpetuated by acollective action problem in society.[15]
According to this theory,cool is a real, but unknowable property.Cool, like "good", is a property that exists but can only be sought after. In theNew Yorker article, "The Coolhunt",[16]cool is given three characteristics:
One of the essential characteristics ofcool is its mutability—what is consideredcool changes over time and varies among cultures and generations.[13]
AuthorRobert Farris Thompson, professor ofart history atYale University, suggests thatItutu, which he translates as "mystic coolness",[17] is one of three pillars of a religious philosophy created in the 15th century[18] by theYoruba andIgbo civilizations of West Africa.Cool, orItutu, contained meanings of conciliation and gentleness of character,generosity, grace, and the ability to defuse fights and disputes. It was also associated with physical beauty. In Yoruba culture, Itutu is connected to water. This also gives it a connotation related to temperature.[19] Thompson also cites a definition ofcool from theGola people ofLiberia, who define it as the ability to be mentally calm or detached, in an otherworldly fashion, from one's circumstances, to be nonchalant in situations where emotionalism or eagerness would be natural and expected.[14] Joseph M. Murphy writes thatcool is also closely associated with the deityÒsun of theYoruba religion.[20]
Thompson acknowledges similarities between African and Europeancool in shared notions of self-control and imperturbability.[19] However, he finds the cultural value of cool in Africa, which influenced theAfrican diaspora, to be different from that held by Europeans, who use the term primarily as the ability to remain calm under stress. According to Thompson, there is significant weight, meaning, and spirituality attached to coolness in traditional African cultures, something which Thompson argues is absent from coolness in the Western context:
The telling point is that the "mask" of coolness is worn not only in time of stress, but also of pleasure, in fields of expressive performance and the dance. Struck by the re-occurrence of this vital notion elsewhere in tropical Africa and in thePan-AmericanAfrican Diaspora, I have come to term the attitude "an aesthetic of the cool" in the sense of a deeply and completely motivated, consciously artistic, interweaving of elements serious and pleasurable, of responsibility and play.[21]
Ronald Perry writes that many words and expressions have passed fromAfrican-American Vernacular English intoStandard English slang, including the contemporary meaning of the wordcool.[22] The definition, meaning "something fashionable", is said to have been popularized injazz circles by tenor saxophonistLester Young.[23] This predominantlyblack jazz scene in the U.S., as well as expatriate musicians in Paris, helped popularize notions of cool in the U.S. in the 1940s, giving birth to "Bohemian" orbeatnik culture.[12] Shortly thereafter, a style of jazz calledcool jazz appeared on the music scene, emphasizing a restrained, laid-back solo style.[24] Notions ofcool as an expression of inner self in aTaoist sense, equilibrium, self-possession, and an absence of conflict are commonly understood in African-American contexts well. Expressions such as "Don't blow your cool", or later, "chill out", and the use of "chill" as a general characterization of inner contentment or restful repose, all have their origins in African-American Vernacular English.[25] As Ted Gioia wrote inA History of Cool Jazz in 100 Tracks:
When the air in the smoke-filled nightclubs of that era became unbreathable, windows and doors were opened to allow some 'cool air' in from the outside to help clear away the suffocating air. By analogy, the slow and smooth jazz style that was typical for that late-night scene came to be called "cool."[26]
He continued, "The goal [of cool jazz] was always the same: to lower the temperature of the music and bring out different qualities in jazz."[27]
Marlene Kim Connor connectscool and the post-war African-American experience in her bookWhat is Cool?: Understanding Black Manhood in America. Connor writes thatcool is the silent and knowing rejection of racist oppression, a self-dignified expression of masculinity developed by black men that were denied mainstream expressions of manhood. She writes that mainstream perception ofcool is narrow and distorted, with coolness often perceived merely as style or arrogance rather than a way to achieve respect.[28]
DesignerChristian Lacroix has said that "the history of cool in America is the history ofAfrican-American culture".[29]
Among black men in America, coolness, which may have its roots in slavery as an ironic submission and concealed subversion (as in an article byThorsten Botz-Bornstein),[30] is enacted at times to create a powerful appearance, a type of performance frequently maintained for the sake of a social audience.[31]
Cool, though an amorphous quality—more mystique than material—is a pervasive element in urban black male culture.[32] Majors and Billson address what they term the "cool pose" in their study and argue that it helps black men counter stress caused by social oppression, rejection and racism. They also contend that it furnishes the black male with a sense of control, strength, confidence and stability and helps him deal with the closed doors and negative messages of the "generalized other". They also believe that attaining black manhood is filled with pitfalls of discrimination, negative self-image, guilt, shame, and fear.[33]
The "cool pose" may be a factor in discrimination in education, contributing toachievement gaps in test scores. In a 2004 study, researchers found that teachers perceived students with African-American culture-related movement styles, referred to as the "cool pose", as lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to needspecial education services than students with standard movement styles, irrespective of race or other academic indicators.[34] The issue of stereotyping and discrimination with respect to the "cool pose" raises complex questions ofassimilation and accommodation of different cultural values. Jason W. Osborne identifies the "cool pose" as one of the factors in black underachievement.[35]Robin D. G. Kelley criticizes calls for assimilation and sublimation of black culture, including the "cool pose". He argues that media and academics have unfairly demonized these aspects of black culture. At the same time, through their sustained fascination with blacks as "exotic" others, appropriated aspects of the "cool pose" into the broader popular culture.[36]
George Elliott Clarke writes thatMalcolm X, likeMiles Davis, embodies essential elements of coolness. As an icon, Malcolm X inspires a complex mixture of both fear and fascination in broader American culture, much like the "cool pose" itself.[32] Bongani Madando considers film iconSidney Poitier as one who embodies coolness on-screen.[37]
In Japan, synonyms ofcool could beiki andsui, referring to traditional aesthetic ideals among commoners that developed inEdo-period Japan. Some tend to immediately connect the aesthetic of coolness in Japan tosamurai, but this is historically inaccurate. In fact, in many art forms includingrakugo, samurai from the countryside were often depicted as the target of ridicule by the average commoner in the civilized Edo period.
Some argue that the ethic of the samuraicaste in Japan andwarrior castes in India and East Asia all resemble what it means to be "cool".[13] The samurai-themed works of film directorAkira Kurosawa are among the most praised of the genre, influencing many filmmakers across the world with his techniques and storytelling. Notable works of his includeSeven Samurai,Yojimbo, andThe Hidden Fortress, the last being one of the primary inspirations forGeorge Lucas'sStar Wars (which also borrows a number of aspects from the samurai, for example theJedi Knights of the series). Samurai have been presented as cool in many modern Japanese movies such asSamurai Fiction,Kagemusha,[38] andYojimbo.[39]
InThe Art of War, a Chinese military treatise written during the 6th century BC, generalSun Tzu, a member of the landless Chinese aristocracy, wrote in Chapter XII:
Profiting by their panic, we shall exterminate them completely; this will cool the King's courage and cover us with glory, besides ensuring the success of our mission.
Asian countries have developed a tradition on their own to explore types of modern "cool" or "ambiguous" aesthetics.
In aTime Asia article, "The Birth of Cool", authorHannah Beech describes Asian coolness as "a revolution in taste led by style gurus who are redefining Chinese craftsmanship in everything from architecture and film to clothing and cuisine" and as a modern aesthetic inspired both byMing-era minimalism and a strenuous attention to detail.[40]
Paul Waley, professor of Human Geography at the University of Leeds, considers Tokyo, along with New York City, London, and Paris, to be one of the world's "capitals of cool",[41] andThe Washington Post's Anthony Faiola called Tokyo "Japan's Empire of Cool" and Japan "the coolest nation on Earth":
Analysts are marveling at the breadth of a recent explosion in cultural exports, and many argue that the international embrace of Japan's pop culture, film, food, style and arts is second only to that of the United States. Business leaders and government officials are now referring to Japan's 'gross national cool' as a new engine for economic growth and societal buoyancy.[42]
The term "gross national cool" was coined by journalist Douglas McGray. In a June/July 2002 article inForeign Policy magazine,[43] he argued that as Japan's economic juggernaut took a wrong turn intoa 10-year slump, and with military power made impossible by a pacifist constitution, the nation had quietly emerged as a cultural powerhouse: "Frompop music toconsumer electronics, architecture to fashion, and food to art, Japan has far greater cultural influence now than it did in the 1980s, when it was an economic superpower."[44] The notion of Asian "cool" applied to Asian consumer electronics is borrowed from the cultural media theoristEric McLuhan, who described "cool" or "cold" media as stimulating participants to complete auditive or visual media content, in sharp contrast to "hot" media that degrades the viewer to a merely passive or non-interactive receiver.
"Aristocratic cool," known assprezzatura, has existed in Europe for centuries, particularly when relating to frank amorality or illicit pleasures behind closed doors;[13] Raphael'sPortrait of Baldassare Castiglione and Leonardo da Vinci'sMona Lisa are classic examples ofsprezzatura.[45] Thesprezzatura of the Mona Lisa is seen in both her smile and the positioning of her hands. Both the smile and hands are intended to convey her grandeur, self-confidence, and societal position.[46] Literally translating to "disdain and detachment",sprezzatura is the art of refraining from the appearance of trying to present oneself in a particular way. In reality, of course, tremendous exertion went into pretending not to bother or care.
English poet and playwrightWilliam Shakespeare used "cool" in several of his works to describe composure and absence of emotion.[13] InA Midsummer Night's Dream, written around 1595 or 1596, he contrasts the shaping fantasies of lovers and madmen with "cool reason",[47] inHamlet he wrote "O gentle son, upon the heat and flame of thy distemper, sprinkle cool patience",[48] and the antagonist Iago inOthello is musing about "reason to cool our raging motions, our carnal stings, our unbitted lusts."[13][49]
InThe Diary of a Nobody, coolness is used as a criticism: "Upon my word, Gowing's coolness surpasses all belief."
The key themes of modern European coolness were forged by avant-garde artists who achieved prominence in the aftermath of the First World War, most notablyDadaists, such as key Dada figuresArthur Cravan andMarcel Duchamp, and the left-wing milieu of theWeimar Republic. The goal of such groups was often self-consciously revolutionary, a determination to scandalize thebourgeoisie by mocking their culture, sexuality, and political moderation.[13]
Bertolt Brecht, a committed Communist, stands as the archetype of this inter-war cool. Brecht projected his cool attitude to life onto his most famous character Macheath or "Mackie Messer" (Mack the Knife) inThe Threepenny Opera. Mackie, the nonchalant, smooth-talking gangster who is an expert with aswitchblade, personifies the bitter-sweet strain of cool; Puritanism and sentimentality are both anathema to the cool character.[13]
During the turbulent inter-war years, coolness was a privilege reserved for bohemian milieus like Brecht's. Cool irony andhedonism remained the province ofcabaret artistes, ostentatious gangsters, and rich socialites. The luxuries depicted inEvelyn Waugh'sBrideshead Revisited andChristopher Isherwood'sGoodbye to Berlin traced the outlines of a new cool.Peter Stearns, a professor of history atGeorge Mason University, suggests that the seeds of acool outlook had been sown among this inter-war generation.[50]
The Second World War brought the populations of Britain, Germany, and France into intimate contact with Americans and their culture. WWII also brought hundreds of thousands ofGIs, whose relaxed, easy-going manner was seen by young people of the time as embodying liberation. To becool orhip meant "hanging out", pursuing sexual liaisons, displaying a level ofnarcissistic self-absorption, and expressing a desire to escape all ideological causes. From the late 1940s onward, this popular culture influenced young people all over the world, to the dismay of the ruling paternalistic elites. The French intelligentsia were outraged, while the British educated classes displayed a haughty indifference that displayed traces of an older aristocraticcool.[51]
What it meant to be "cool" resonated behind the Iron Curtain, where it offered relief from the earnestness of socialist propaganda and socialist realism in art. In the Polish industrial cityŁódź, jazz, the "forbidden music", served Polish youth of the 1950s much as it had served its African-American creators, both as personal diversion and subterranean resistance to what they saw as a stultifying official culture. Some clubs featured live jazz performances, and their smoky, sexually charged atmosphere carried a message for which the Puritanical values and monumental art of Marxist officialdom were an ideal foil.[52] Arriving in Poland via France, America, and England, Polish coolness stimulated the film talents of a generation of artists, includingAndrzej Wajda,Roman Polanski, and other graduates of theNational Film School in Łódź, as well as the novelistJerzy Kosinski, in whose clinical prosecool tends towards the sadistic.[13]
InPrague, the capital of Bohemia,cool flourished in the fadedArt Deco splendor of theCafé Slavia, which was part of the dissident underground called itself the "Jazz Section", following the crushing of thePrague Spring by Soviet tanks in 1968.[13]
[Cool is] a heavily manipulative corporate ethos.
Over the past decade, young black men in American inner cities have been the market most aggressively mined by brandmasters as a source of borrowed 'meaning' and identity. .. The truth is that the 'got to be cool' rhetoric of the global brands is, more often than not, an indirect way of saying 'got to be black.'
— DesignerChristian Lacroix[29]
Coolness can be used as a marketing device, cool can be exploited as a manufactured and empty idea imposed on cultures at large through a top-down process by sellers of popular culture who capitalize on trends and subcultures most often created by youths.[53] These include record company executives, fashion companies, and merchandisers. Furthermore, "cool has become the central ideology ofconsumer capitalism",[54] resulting in the selling of coolness. This drives many young people and adults to attempt to "fit into" the mainstream and adhere to trends to purchase products and/or brands that make them appear cool.
The concept of cool was often used in this way to marketmenthol cigarettes to African Americans in the 1960s. In 2004, over 70% of African American smokers preferred menthol cigarettes compared to 30% of white smokers. This unique social phenomenon was principally occasioned by the tobacco industry's manipulation of the burgeoning segregated urban black consumer market in cities at that time. According toFast Company magazine, some large companies have started "outsourcing cool"—paying other "smaller, more-limber, closer-to-the-ground outsider" companies to help them keep up with customers' rapidly changing tastes and demands.
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In terms of fashion, the concept ofcool has transformed from the 1960s to the 1990s by becoming integrated in the dominant fabric of fashion culture. America's mass production of "ready-to-wear" fashion in the 1940s and 1950s established specific conventional outfits as markers of one's unchanging social role in society. Subcultures such ashippies felt repressed by the dominating conservative and conformist ideology of the 1940s and 1950s and rebelled. According to Dick Pountain's definition ofcool, hippies' fashionable dress can be seen ascool because of its prominent deviation from the standard uniformity and mass production of clothing created by the "totalitarian" system of fashion.[55] Hippie-inspired fashion included various styles featuring bold colors, such as the "Trippy Hippie," the "Fantasy Hippie," the "Retro Hippie", the "Ethnic Hippie", and the "Craft Hippie".[56] Additionally, according tostrain theory, the hand production of hippie fashion made their clothingcool all on its own. Handmade clothing passively rebelled againstconsumerism by allowing hippies to reject that lifestyle, which in turn made themcool. As a result of their disengagement with the establishment, the scope of self-critique was limited because their "mask" filtered negative thoughts of worthlessness, fostering the opportunity forself-worth.[55]
Starting in the 1990s and continuing into the 21st century, the concept of dressingcool left the minority and entered the mainstream, making it a dominant ideology.Cool entered the mainstream as the hippie rebels of the late 1960s became the senior executives of business sectors, such as the fashion industry. Since they grew up withcool and maintained the same values, they knew its rules and thus knew how to accurately market and produce such clothing.[55] However, oncecool became the dominant ideology in the 21st century, its definition changed to not one of rebellion but of one attempting to hide their insecurities in a confident manner.
Thegrunge fashion style of the 1990s and 21st century allowed people who felt financially insecure about their lifestyle to pretend to "fit in" by wearing a unique piece of clothing, but one that was polished. For example, unlike the hippie style that clearly diverges from the norm, throughMarc Jacobs' combined "fashion-grunge" style of "a littlepreppie, a little grunge and a little couture", he produces not only a bold statement, but one that is mysterious and awkward, creating an ambiguous perception of what the wearer's internal feelings are.[57]
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