| Continental Army | |
|---|---|
 Seal of theBoard of War and Ordnance | |
| Founder | Second Continental Congress |
| Commander-in-Chief | George Washington |
| Dates of operation | June 14, 1775 (1775-06-14) – 1783 (1783) |
| Allegiance | United Colonies (1775–1776) United States (1776–1783) |
| Size | 48,000 at peak (231,000 served in total)[1] |
| Allies | Kingdom of France |
| Opponents | British government,British Army,German auxiliaries |
| Battles and wars |
|
| Colors | Dark blue |
 |
| Armed Forces |
| United States |
|---|
| Great Britain |
| France |
| Related topics |
TheContinental Army was the army of theUnited Colonies representing theThirteen Colonies and later theUnited States during theAmerican Revolutionary War. It was formed on June 14, 1775, by a resolution passed by theSecond Continental Congress, meeting inPhiladelphia after the war's outbreak at theBattles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. As a result, theU.S. Army Birthday is celebrated on June 14.[2]
The Continental Army was created to coordinate military efforts of the colonies in the war against theBritish, who sought to maintain control over the American colonies. GeneralGeorge Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and maintained this position throughout the war.
The Continental Army was supplemented by localmilitias and volunteer troops that were either loyal to individual states or otherwise independent. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after theTreaty of Paris formally ended the war, except for two detachments retained to guardFort Pitt andWest Point.
The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all theThirteen Colonies and, after 1776, from all 13 states. TheAmerican Revolutionary War began at theBattles of Lexington and Concord, on April 19, 1775, at a time when the colonial revolutionaries had no standing army. Previously, each colony had relied onPatriot militias, which were made up of part-time citizen-soldiers for local defense, or the raising of temporaryprovincial troops, as was done during theFrench and Indian War between 1754 and 1763. As tensions withGreat Britain increased in the years leading to the war, colonists began to reform their militias in preparation for the perceived potential conflict. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of theIntolerable Acts in 1774. Colonists such asRichard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but theFirst Continental Congress rejected the idea.[3] On April 23, 1775, theMassachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of a colonial army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar but smaller forces.
On June 14, 1775, theSecond Continental Congress, meeting in present-dayIndependence Hall inPhiladelphia, voted to establish the Continental Army to provide for the common defense of the colonies, and incorporated patriot forces already in place outsideBoston (22,000 troops) andNew York (5,000). It also raised the first ten companies of Continental Army troops on a one-year enlistment, including riflemen from theProvince of Pennsylvania,Province of Maryland, andColony of Virginia, which were used aslight infantry. The Pennsylvania riflemen became the1st Continental Regiment in January 1776. On June 15, 1775, Congress unanimously electedGeorge Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Washington accepted, and departed immediately for Boston, where he led the successfulSiege of Boston.
Washington served as the Continental Army's commander-in-chief throughout the Revolutionary War without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses.[4] As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, the role of the Continental Army became the subject of considerable debate. Some Americans had a general aversion to maintaining a standing army, but the requirements of the Revolutionary War against theBritish was seen as requiring the discipline and organization of an organized central military. As a result, the Continental Army evolved throughout the war, routinely reorganizing its units and ultimately seeking and obtaining support fromFrance, which sought to counter British influence inNorth America.
By the end of 1775, during the first year of the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress operated as a de facto war government, who had authorized the creation of the Continental Army, the Navy, and Marines. A new flag was needed to represent both the Congress and the United Colonies. It is believed that theContinental Union Flag, representing the soldiers and sailors unified as the armed forces of the United Colonies, was raised by George Washington's army on January 2, 1776, at Prospect Hill in Charlestown (present-day Somerville), near his headquarters at Cambridge, Massachusetts.[5]
The Continental Army's forces included several successive armies or establishments:
Military affairs were at first managed by theContinental Congress inplenary session, although specific matters were prepared by a number ofad hoc committees. In June 1776 a five-memberstanding committee, theBoard of War and Ordinance, was established in order to replace the ad hoc committees. The five members who formed the Board fully participated in the plenary activities of Congress as well as in other committees and were unable to fully engage in the administrative leadership of the Continental Army. A new Board of War was therefore formed in October 1777, of three commissioners not member of Congress. Two more commissioners, not members of Congress, were shortly thereafter added, but in October 1778, the membership was set to three commissioners not members of Congress and two commissioners members of Congress. In early 1780, theQuartermaster General, the Commissary General of Purchase, and the Commissary General of Issue were put under the direction of the Board. TheOffice of the Secretary at War was created in February 1781, although the Office did not start its work untilBenjamin Lincoln assumed the office in October 1781.[7]
On June 15, 1775, delegates to theSecond Continental Congress, convening in present-dayIndependence Hall inPhiladelphia, unanimously electedGeorge Washington as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. Washington accepted the position, and served throughout theAmerican Revolutionary War without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses.[4] Washington, as commander-in-chief, was supported by a chief administrative officer, theAdjutant General.Horatio Gates held the position (1775–1776),Joseph Reed (1776–1777),George Weedon and Isaac Budd Dunn (1777),Morgan Connor 1777,Timothy Pickering (1777–1778),Alexander Scammell (1778–1781), andEdward Hand (1781–1783).[8] AnInspector General assisted the Commander-in-Chief through periodically inspecting and reporting on the condition of troops. The first incumbent wasThomas Conway (1777–1778), followed byBaron von Steuben 1778–1784, under whom the position became that of a de facto chief of staff.[9] TheJudge Advocate General assisted the commander-in-chief with the administration ofmilitary justice, but he did not, as his modern counterpart, give legal advise.William Tudor was the first appointee.[10] He was followed byJohn Laurance in 1777 andThomas Edwards in 1781[11] The Mustermaster General kept track by name of every officer and man serving in the army. The first mustermaster wasStephen Moylan.[12] He was followed byGunning Bedford Jr. 1776–1777 and Joseph Ward.[11]
Units of the Continental Army were assigned to any one of theterritorial departments to decentralize command and administration. In general there were seven territorial departments,[13] although their boundaries were subject to change and they were not all in existence throughout the war. The Department of New York (later the Northern Department) was created when Congress madePhilip Schuyler its commander on June 15, 1775. The Southern and Middle Departments were added in February 1776. Several others were added the same year. A major general appointed by Congress commanded each department. Under his command came all Continental Army units within the territorial limits of the department, as well as state troops and militia – if released by the governor of the state.[14]
All troops under the department commander were designated as anarmy; hence troops in the Northern Department were called theNorthern Army, in the Southern Department theSouthern Army, etc. The department commander could be field commander or he could appoint another officer to command the troops in the field. Depending on the size of the army, it could be divided intowings ordivisions (of typically threebrigades) that were temporary organizations, and brigades (of two to fiveregiments) that in effect were permanent organizations and thebasic tactical unit of the Continental Army.[15]
Aninfantry regiment in the Continental Army typically consisted of 8 to 10 companies, each commanded by a captain. Field officers usually included a colonel, a lieutenant colonel, and a major. A regimental staff was made up of anadjutant,quartermaster, surgeon,surgeon's mate,paymaster, andchaplain. Infantry regiments were often called simply regiments or battalions.[16] The regiment's fighting strength consisted of a singlebattalion of 728 officers and enlisted men at full strength.[17]Cavalry andartillery regiments were organized in a similar manner. A company of cavalry was frequently called a troop. An artillery company contained specialized soldiers, such asbombardiers,gunners, andmatrosses.[16] A continental cavalry regiment had a nominal strength of 280 officers and men, but the actual strength was usually less than 150 men and even fewer horses.[18]Artificers were civilian or militarymechanics andartisans employed by the army to provide services. They includedblacksmiths,coopers,carpenters,harnessmakers, andwheelwrights.[16]
In June 1775, theSecond Continental Congress created the position ofQuartermaster General, after the British example. He was charged with opening and maintaining the lines of advance and retreat, laying out camps and assigning quarters. His responsibilities included furnishing the army with materiel and supplies, although the supply of arms, clothing, and provisions fell under other departments. The transportation of all supplies, even those provided by other departments, came under his ambit. The Quartermaster General served with the main army under GeneralGeorge Washington, but was directly responsible to Congress. Deputy quartermasters were appointed by Congress to serve with separate armies, and functioned independently of the Quartermaster General.Thomas Mifflin served as Quartermaster General (1775–1776 and 1776–1778),Stephen Moylan (1776),Nathanael Greene (1778–1780), andTimothy Pickering (from 1780).[19]
Congress also created the position ofCommissary General of Stores and Provisions directly responsible to Congress, withJoseph Trumbull as the first incumbent. In 1777, Congress divided the department into two, a Commissary General of Purchases, with four deputies, and a Commissary General of Issues, with three deputies. William Buchanan was head of the Purchase Department (1777–1778),Jeremiah Wadsworth (1778–1779), andEphraim Blaine (1779–1781). In 1780, the department became subordinated to theSuperintendent of Finance, although Blaine retained his position.Charles Stewart served as Commissary General of Issues (1777–1782).[20]
The responsibility for procuring arms and ammunition at first rested with various committees of Congress. In 1775, a field organization, usually known as the Military Branch of the Commissariat of Military Stores, was made responsible for distribution and care ofordnance in the field. In 1777, Congress established a Commissary General of Military Stores. Known as the Civil Branch, this organization was responsible for handlingarsenals,laboratories, and someprocurement under the general supervision of the Board of War. Later in the war, a Surveyor of Ordnance was made responsible for inspectingfoundries,magazines, ordnance shops, and field ordnance. In July 1777, the Board of War was authorized to purchase artillery.[21]
Congress created a hospital department in July 1775 as a part of the Continental Army's administrative structure. It came under theDirector General of the Hospital Department, chosen by Congress but serving under the Commander-in-Chief, and was staffed by foursurgeons, anapothecary, twentysurgeon's mates, anurse for every ten patients, amatron to supervise the nurses, a clerk, and two storekeepers. The department was reorganized in 1777; deputy director generals were added to the administrative structure; commissaries of hospitals were established to provide food and forage; and apothecary generals were established to procure and distribute medicines.[22] The first director general wasBenjamin Church (1775), he was followed byJohn Morgan (1775–1777),William Shippen (1777–1781), andJohn Cochran (1781).[11]
Keeping the continentals clothed was a difficult task and to do this Washington appointed James Mease, a merchant from Philadelphia, as Clothier General. Mease worked closely with state-appointed agents to purchase clothing and things such as cow hides to make clothing and shoes for soldiers. Mease eventually resigned in 1777 and had compromised much of the organization of the Clothing Department. After this, on many accounts, the soldiers of the Continental Army were often poorly clothed, had few blankets, and often did not even have shoes. The problems with clothing and shoes for soldiers were often not the result of not having enough but of organization and lack of transportation. To reorganize, the Board of War was appointed to sort out the clothing supply chain. During this time they sought out the help of France, and for the remainder of the war clothing was coming from over-sea procurement.[23]
The disbursing of money to pay soldiers and suppliers were the function of thePaymaster-General.James Warren was the first incumbent of this office.[24] His successor wasWilliam Palfrey in 1776, who was followed byJohn Pierce Jr. in 1781.[11]
| Continental Army Strength | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | January | July | December |
| 1775 | - | 23 239 | 21 535 |
| 1776 | 15 608 | 25 606 | 11 423 |
| 1777 | .. | .. | 25 985 |
| 1778 | 20 868 | 28 638 | 33 411 |
| 1779 | 33 535 | 26 394 | 18 700 |
| 1780 | 21 261 | 15 674 | 8 742 |
| 1781 | 6 853 | 10 265 | .. |
| 1782 | 10 687 | 12 392 | 13 973 |
| 1783 | 12 031 | 2 760 June | - |
| Source: | [25] | ||
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The Continental Army lacked the discipline typically expected of an army. When they first assembled, the count of how many soldiers George Washington had was delayed a little over a week. Instead of obeying their commanders and officers without question, each unit was a community that had democratically chosen its leaders. The regiments came from different states and, because they were composed of volunteers, were uneven in numbers. While this could have been remedied by reassigning soldiers, many held a belief borne of Americanrepublicanism - if separated from the officers they had chosen, soldiers did not believe they should have to serve. Relying on the willingness of his volunteer army to fight, George Washington had to sacrifice this logistical weakness in favor of compromise. 3[26]
Soldiers in the Continental Army were volunteers; they agreed to serve in the army and standard enlistment periods lasted from one to three years. Early in the war, the enlistment periods were short, as theContinental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 48,000 men overall and 13,000 troops in one area. The turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–1777, and longer enlistments were approved. As the new country (not yet fully independent) had no money, the government agreed to give grants to the soldiers which they could exchange for money.[27] In 1781 and 1782, Patriot officials and officers in theSouthern Colonies repeatedly implemented policies that offered slaves as rewards for recruiters who managed to enlist a certain number of volunteers in the Continental Army; in January 1781, Virginia'sGeneral Assembly passed a measure which announced that voluntary enlistees in theVirginia Line's regiments would be given a "healthy sound negro" as a reward.[27]
The officers of both the Continental Army and the state militias were typically yeoman farmers with a sense of honor and status and an ideological commitment to oppose the policies of theBritish Crown.[28] Meanwhile, the enlisted men largely came from the working class or minority groups, namely English, Ulster Protestant, or African descent. Up to a fourth of Washington's army were ofScots-Irish (English and Scottish descent) Ulster origin, many being recent arrivals and in need of work.[29] They were motivated to volunteer by specific contracts that promised bounty money; regular pay at good wages; food, clothing, and medical care; companionship; and the promise of land ownership after the war. By 1780, more than 30,000 men served in the Continental army, but the lack of resources and proper training resulted in the deaths of over 13,000 soldiers.[30] By 1781–1782, threats of mutiny and actual mutinies were becoming serious.[31][32]
The Continental Army was racially integrated, a condition theUnited States Army would not see again until thelate 1940s. During the Revolution,African American slaves were promised freedom in exchange for military service by both the Continental and British armies.[33][34][35] Approximately 6,600 people of color (including African American, indigenous, and multiracial men) served with the colonial forces, and made up one-fifth of the Northern Continental Army.[36][37]
In addition to the Continental Army regulars, state militia units were assigned for short-term service and fought in campaigns throughout the war. Sometimes the militia units operated independently of the Continental Army, but often local militias were called out to support and augment the Continental Army regulars during campaigns. The militia troops developed a reputation for being prone to premature retreats, a fact that GeneralDaniel Morgan integrated into his strategy at theBattle of Cowpens and used to fool the British in 1781.[38]
The financial responsibility for providing pay, food, shelter, clothing, arms, and other equipment to specific units was assigned to states as part of the establishment of these units. States differed in how well they lived up to these obligations. There were constant funding issues and morale problems as the war continued. This led to the army offering low pay, often rotten food, hard work, cold, heat, poor clothing and shelter, harsh discipline, and a high chance of becoming a casualty.[39]
During thesiege of Boston in June 1775, the Continental Army inCambridge, Massachusetts is estimated to have numbered between 14,000 and 16,000 men fromNew England, though the actual number may have been as low as 11,000 because of desertions. UntilGeorge Washington's arrival in Cambridge, the Continental Army was commanded byArtemas Ward. TheBritish Army inBoston was increasing by fresh arrivals, then numbering about 10,000 men. The British controlled Boston and defended it with their fleet, but they were outnumbered and did not attempt to challenge the American control of New England. Washington selected youngHenry Knox, a self-educated strategist, to take charge of the artillery from an abandoned British fort in upstate New York, and dragged across the snow to and placed them in the hills surrounding Boston in March 1776.[40] The British situation was untenable. They negotiated an uneventful abandonment of the city and relocated their forces to Halifax in Canada. Washington relocated his army to New York. For the next five years, the main bodies of the Continental and British armies campaigned against one another in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These campaigns included the notable battles ofTrenton,Princeton,Brandywine,Germantown, andMorristown, and others.
The army increased its effectiveness and success rate through a series of trials and errors, often at a great human cost. General Washington and other distinguished officers were instrumental leaders in preserving unity, learning and adapting, and ensuring discipline throughout the eight years of war. In the winter of 1777–1778, with the addition ofBaron von Steuben, a Prussian expert, the training and discipline of the Continental Army was dramatically upgraded to modern European standards through theRegulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States.[41] This was during the infamous winter atValley Forge. Washington always viewed the Army as a temporary measure and strove to maintaincivilian control of the military, as did theContinental Congress, though there were minor disagreements about how this was to be carried out.
Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money, or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Major and minor mutinies—56 in all—diminished the reliability of two of the main units late in the war.[42] Discipline could be harsh and General Washington was said to have "approved hundreds of death sentences by either hanging or firing squad".[43]
The French played a decisive role in 1781 as Washington's Army was augmented by aFrench expeditionary force under Lieutenant GeneralRochambeau and a squadron of the French navy under theComte de Barras. By disguising his movements, Washington moved the combined forces south toVirginia without the British commanders in New York realizing it. This resulted in the capture of the main British invasion force in the south at theSiege of Yorktown, which resulted in the American and their allied victory in the land war in North America and assured independence.
| Continental Army Battle Casualties | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | KIA | Wounded | POW | MIA |
| 1775 | 323 | 436 | 519 | 5 |
| 1776 | 600 | 562 | 5365 | 1 |
| 1777 | 1493 | 2053 | 2084 | 38 |
| 1778 | 753 | 443 | 1212 | 139 |
| 1779 | 657 | 824 | 859 | 18 |
| 1780 | 984 | 1886 | 4661 | 9 |
| 1781 | 1003 | 1454 | 761 | 1216 |
| 1782 | 277 | 124 | 80 | 0 |
| 1783 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| Source: | [44] | |||
A small residual force remained atWest Point and some frontier outposts until Congress created theUnited States Army by their resolution of June 3, 1784. Although Congress declined on May 12 to make a decision on the peace establishment, it did address the need for some troops to remain on duty until the British evacuated New York City and several frontier posts. The delegates told Washington to use men enlisted for fixed terms as temporary garrisons. A detachment of those men from West Pointreoccupied New York without incident on November 25. When Steuben's effort in July to negotiate a transfer of frontier forts with Major GeneralFrederick Haldimand collapsed, however, the British maintained control over them, as they would into the 1790s. That failure and the realization that most of the remaining infantrymen's enlistments were due to expire by June 1784 led Washington to order Knox, his choice as the commander of the peacetime army, to discharge all but 500 infantry and 100 artillerymen before winter set in. The former regrouped as1st American Regiment, under ColonelHenry Jackson of Massachusetts. The single artillery company, New Yorkers under MajorJohn Doughty, came from remnants of the2nd Continental Artillery Regiment.
Congress issued a proclamation on October 18, 1783, which approved Washington's reductions. On November 2, Washington, then atRockingham nearRocky Hill, New Jersey, released hisFarewell Orders issued to the Armies of the United States of America to the Philadelphia newspapers for nationwide distribution to the furloughed men. In the message, he thanked the officers and men for their assistance and reminded them that "the singular interpositions of Providence in our feeble condition were such, as could scarcely escape the attention of the most unobserving; while the unparalleled perseverance of the Armies of the United States, through almost every possible suffering and discouragement for the space of eight long years, was little short of a standing Miracle."[63]
Washington believed that the blending of persons from every colony into "one patriotic band of Brothers" had been a major accomplishment, and he urged the veterans to continue this devotion in civilian life. Washington said farewell to his remaining officers on December 4 atFraunces Tavern in New York City. On December 23 he appeared in Congress, then sitting at Annapolis, andreturned his commission as commander-in-chief: "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action; and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Congress ended the War of American Independence on January 14, 1784, by ratifying the definitive peace treaty that had been signed in Paris on September 3.
Monthly pay of the officers and soldiers of the continental line as established by the resolutions of Congress, fixing the arrangement of the Continental Army May 27, 1778, which rate of pay continued to the end of the war.[64]
| Infantry | |||
| Rank | Pay per month (dollars) | Rank | Pay per month (dollars) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Colonel | 75 | Sergeant Major | 10 |
| Lieutenant Colonel | 60 | Quartermaster Sergeant | 10 |
| Major | 50 | Sergeant | 10 |
| Captain | 40 | Drum Major | 9+1⁄2 |
| Captain Lieutenant | 26+2⁄3 | Fife Major | 9 |
| Lieutenant | 26+2⁄3 | Drummer,Fifer | 7+1⁄2 |
| Ensign | 20 | Corporal | 7+1⁄2 |
| Surgeon | 60 | Private | 6+2⁄3 |
| Surgeon's Mate | 40 | ||
| Paymasters 20 dollars, Adjutants 13 dollars, Quartermasters 13 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line. | |||
| Source: | [65] | ||
| Cavalry | |||
| Rank | Pay per month (dollars) | Rank | Pay per month (dollars) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Colonel | 93¾ | Quartermaster Sergeant | 15 |
| Lieutenant Colonel | 75 | Sergeant | 15 |
| Major | 60 | Trumpet Major | 11 |
| Captain | 50 | Trumpeter | 10 |
| Lieutenant | 33+1⁄3 | Corporal | 10 |
| Cornet | 26+2⁄3 | Dragoon | 8+1⁄3 |
| Surgeon | 60 | Saddler | 10 |
| Surgeon's Mate | 40 | Farrier | 10 |
| Riding Master | 33+1⁄3 | ||
| Paymasters 25 dollars, Adjutants 15 dollars, Quartermasters 15 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line. | |||
| Source: | [65] | ||
| Artillery | |||
| Rank | Pay per month (dollars) | Rank | Pay per month (dollars) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Colonel | 100 | Sergeant Major | 1123/90 |
| Lieutenant Colonel | 75 | Quartermaster Sergeant | 1123/90 |
| Major | 62+1⁄2 | Drum Major | 1033/90 |
| Captain | 50 | Fife Major | 1033/90 |
| Captain Lieutenant | 33+1⁄3 | Sergeant | 10 |
| First Lieutenant | 33+1⁄3 | Bombardier | 9 |
| Second Lieutenant | 33+1⁄3 | Corporal | 9 |
| Surgeon | 75 | Gunner | 8+2⁄3 |
| Surgeon's Mate | 50 | Drummers, Fifers | 8+2⁄3 |
| Matross | 8+1⁄3 | ||
| Paymasters 25 dollars, Adjutants 16 dollars, Quartermasters 16 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line. | |||
| Source: | [65] | ||
| Engineers | |||
| Rank | Pay per month (dollars) | Rank | Pay per month (dollars) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Captain | 50 | Sergeant | 10 |
| Lieutenant | 33+1⁄3 | Corporal | 9 |
| Private | 8+1⁄3 | ||
| Aid-de-camp 24 dollars, Brigade Quartermaster 24 dollars, Brigade Major 15 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line. | |||
| Source: | [65] | ||
| Provosts | |||
| Rank | Pay per month (dollars) | Rank | Pay per month (dollars) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Captain of provosts | 50 | Sergeant | 15 |
| Lieutenant | 33+1⁄3 | Trumpeter | 10 |
| Clerk | 33+1⁄3 | Provost or private | 8+1⁄3 |
| Executioner | 10 | ||
| Source: | [65] | ||
During theAmerican Revolutionary War, the Continental Army initially woreribbons,cockades, andepaulettes of various colors as anad hoc form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote in 1775:
"As the Continental Army has unfortunately no uniforms in 1775, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able to distinguish the commissioned officers from the privates, it is desired that some badge of distinction be immediately provided; for instance that the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and thesubalterns green."
In 1776, captains were to have buff or white cockades.
| General officers | Field officers | Junior officers | Non-commissioned officers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Title | General and Commander-in-chief | Major general | Brigadier general | Aide-de-camp | Colonel, Lieutenant colonel, Major | Captain | Lieutenant, Ensign | Sergeant | Corporal |
| Insignia |  |  |  |  |  |  | .svg) |  |  |
| Source:[66] | |||||||||
Later on in the war, the Continental Army established its own uniform with a black and white cockade among all ranks. Infantry officers had silver and other branches gold insignia:
For commissioned officers 'metal epaulets were introduced by a general order dated June 18. 1780 (except for those of the CIC). For non-commissioned officers, cloth epaulets were prescribed since a general order dated July 23. 1775. That order differentiated only between the ranks ofserjeant andcorporal. At the end of the war, theserjeant-major was recognizable by a pair of cloth epaulets. The number, position, and color of the NCO-epaulettes were changed several times.
| General officers | Field officers | Junior officers | Non-commissioned officers | Enlisted | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Title | Commander-in-chief | Major general | Brigadier general | Colonel | Lieutenant colonel | Major | Captain | Subaltern | Sergeant major Quartermaster sergeant Drum major Fife major | Sergeant | Corporal | Private |
| Insignia |  |  |  |  | | | | | | | | No insignia |
| Source:[67] | ||||||||||||
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