Consul (abbrev.cos.;Latin pluralconsules) was the title of one of the two chiefmagistrates of theRoman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under theRoman Empire. The title was used in other Europeancity-states through antiquity and the Middle Ages, in particular in theRepublics of Genoa andPisa, then revived in modernstates, notably in theFirst French Republic. The related adjective isconsular, from the Latinconsularis.
This usage contrasts with modern terminology, where a consul is atype of diplomat.
A consul held the highest elected political office of theRoman Republic (509 to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the highest level of thecursus honorum (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired). Consuls were elected to office and held power for one year. There were always two consuls in power at any time.
It was not uncommon for an organization under Roman private law to copy the terminology of state and city institutions for its own statutory agents. The founding statute, or contract, of such an organisation was calledlex, 'law'. The people elected each year werepatricians, members of the upper class.
While many cities, including the Gallic states and theCarthaginian Republic, had a double-headed chief magistracy, anothertitle was often used, such as thePunicsufet,[1]Duumvir, or native styles likeMeddix.
_-_DSC02421.JPG)
Thecity-state of Genoa, unlike ancient Rome, bestowed the title ofconsul on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. Among these were Genoese officials stationed in various Mediterranean ports, whose role included helping Genoese merchants and sailors in difficulties with the local authorities. Great Britain reciprocated by appointingconsuls to Genoa from 1722. This institution, with its name, was later emulated by other powers and is reflected in the modern usage of the word (seeConsul (representative)).
In addition to the Genoese Republic, theRepublic of Pisa also took the form of "Consul" in the early stages of its government. The Consulate of the Republic of Pisa was the major government institution present in Pisa from 1087 to 1189. Despite losing space within the government since 1190 in favor of thePodestà, for some periods of the 13th century some citizens were again elected as consuls.[2]
Throughout most of southernFrance, a consul (French:consul orconsule) was an office equivalent to theéchevins [fr] of the north and roughly similar withEnglishaldermen. The most prominent were those ofBordeaux andToulouse, which came to be known asjurats andcapitouls, respectively. The capitouls of Toulouse were granted transmittable nobility. In many other smaller towns the first consul was the equivalent of a mayor today, assisted by a variable number of secondary consuls and jurats. His main task was to levy and collect tax.
TheDukes ofGaeta often used also the title of "consul" in its Greek form "Hypatos" (seeList of Hypati and Dukes of Gaeta).
AfterNapoleon Bonapartestaged a coup against theDirectory government in November 1799, the French Republic adopted aconstitution which conferred executive powers upon three consuls, elected for a period of ten years. In reality, the first consul, Bonaparte, dominated his two colleagues and held supreme power, soon making himself consul for life (1802) and eventually, in 1804,emperor.
The office was held by:
The short-livedBolognese Republic, proclaimed in 1796 as aFrench client republic in the Central Italian city ofBologna, had a government consisting of nine consuls and its head of state was thePresidente del Magistrato, i.e.,chief magistrate, a presiding office held for four months by one of the consuls. Bologna already had consuls at some parts of its Medieval history.
The French-sponsoredRoman Republic (15 February 1798 – 23 June 1800) was headed by multiple consuls:
Consular rule was interrupted by theNeapolitan occupation (27 November – 12 December 1798), which installed a Provisional Government:
Rome was occupied by France (11 July – 28 September 1799) and again by Naples (30 September 1799 – 23 June 1800), bringing an end to the Roman Republic.
Among the many petty local republics that were formed during the first year of theGreek Revolution, prior to the creation of a unified Provisional Government at theFirst National Assembly at Epidaurus, were:
Note: inGreek, the term for "consul" is "hypatos" (ὕπατος), which translates as "supreme one", and hence does not necessarily imply a joint office.
In between a series ofjuntas and various other short-lived regimes, theyoung republic was governed by "consuls of the republic", with two consuls alternating in power every 4 months:
After a few presidents of theProvisional Junta, there were again consuls of the republic, 14 March 1841 – 13 March 1844 (ruling jointly, but occasionally styled "first consul", "second consul"):Carlos Antonio López Ynsfrán (b. 1792 – d. 1862) +Mariano Roque Alonzo Romero (d. 1853) (the lasts of the aforementioned juntistas, Commandant-General of the Army)Thereafter all republican rulers were styled "president".
In modern terminology, a consul is atype of diplomat. TheAmerican Heritage Dictionary definesconsul as "an official appointed by a government to reside in a foreign country and represent its interests there."The Devil's Dictionary definesConsul as "in American politics, a person who having failed to secure an office from the people is given one by the Administration on condition that he leave the country".
In most governments, the consul is the head of the consular section of an embassy, and is responsible for all consular services such as immigrant and non-immigrantvisas,passports, and citizen services for expatriates living or traveling in the host country.
A less common modern usage is when the consul of one country takes a governing role in the host country.
Differently named, but same function
Modern UN System
Specific