Constructivism is an early twentieth-century art movement founded in 1915 byVladimir Tatlin andAlexander Rodchenko.[1] Abstract and austere, constructivist art aimed to reflect modernindustrial society and urban space.[1] The movement rejected decorative stylization in favour of the industrial assemblage of materials.[1] Constructivists were in favour of art forpropaganda and social purposes, and were associated with Sovietsocialism, theBolsheviks and theRussian avant-garde.[2]
Constructivist architecture and art had a great effect on modern art movements of the 20th century, influencing major trends such as theBauhaus andDe Stijl movements. Its influence was widespread, with major effects upon architecture,sculpture,graphic design,industrial design, theatre, film, dance, fashion and, to some extent, music.
Constructivism was a post-World War I development ofRussian Futurism, and particularly of the 'counter reliefs' ofVladimir Tatlin, which had been exhibited in 1915. The term itself was invented by the sculptorsAntoine Pevsner andNaum Gabo, who developed an industrial, angular style of work, while its geometric abstraction owed something to theSuprematism of Kazimir Malevich.Constructivism first appears as a term in Gabo'sRealistic Manifesto of 1920.Aleksei Gan used the word as the title of his bookConstructivism, printed in 1922.[3]
Constructivism as theory and practice was derived largely from a series of debates at theInstitute of Artistic Culture (INKhUK) in Moscow, from 1920 to 1922. After deposing its first chairman,Wassily Kandinsky, for his 'mysticism', The First Working Group of Constructivists (includingLiubov Popova,Alexander Vesnin,Rodchenko,Varvara Stepanova, and the theoristsAleksei Gan,Boris Arvatov andOsip Brik) would develop a definition of Constructivism as the combination offaktura: the particular material properties of an object, andtektonika, its spatial presence. Initially the Constructivists worked on three-dimensional constructions as a means of participating in industry: the OBMOKhU (Society of Young Artists) exhibition showed these three dimensional compositions, by Rodchenko, Stepanova,Karl Ioganson and theStenberg brothers. Later the definition would be extended to designs for two-dimensional works such as books or posters, withmontage andfactography becoming important concepts.
As much as involving itself in designs for industry, the Constructivists worked on public festivals and street designs for the post-October revolution Bolshevik government. Perhaps the most famous of these was inVitebsk, where Malevich'sUNOVIS Group painted propaganda plaques and buildings (the best known beingEl Lissitzky's posterBeat the Whites with the Red Wedge (1919)). Inspired byVladimir Mayakovsky's declaration 'the streets our brushes, the squares our palettes', artists and designers participated in public life during the Civil War. A striking instance was the proposed festival for theComintern congress in 1921 by Alexander Vesnin and Liubov Popova, which resembled the constructions of the OBMOKhU exhibition as well as their work for the theatre. There was a great deal of overlap during this period between Constructivism andProletkult, the ideas of which concerning the need to create an entirely new culture struck a chord with the Constructivists. In addition some Constructivists were heavily involved in the 'ROSTA Windows', a Bolshevik public information campaign of around 1920. Some of the most famous of these were by the poet-painter Vladimir Mayakovsky andVladimir Lebedev.
The constructivists tried to create works that would make the viewer an active viewer of the artwork. In this it had similarities with theRussian Formalists' theory of 'making strange', and accordingly their main theoristViktor Shklovsky worked closely with the Constructivists, as did other formalists like the Arch Bishop. These theories were tested in theatre, particularly with the work ofVsevolod Meyerhold, who had established what he called 'October in the theatre'. Meyerhold developed a 'biomechanical' acting style, which was influenced both by the circus and by the 'scientific management' theories ofFrederick Winslow Taylor. Meanwhile, the stage sets by the likes of Vesnin, Popova and Stepanova tested Constructivist spatial ideas in a public form. A more populist version of this was developed byAlexander Tairov, with stage sets byAleksandra Ekster and the Stenberg brothers. These ideas would influence German directors likeBertolt Brecht andErwin Piscator, as well as the early Soviet cinema.
The key work of Constructivism was Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for theMonument to the Third International (Tatlin's Tower) (1919–20)[4] which combined amachine aesthetic with dynamic components celebrating technology such as searchlights and projection screens. Gabo publicly criticised Tatlin's design saying, "Either create functional houses and bridges or create pure art, not both." This had already caused a major controversy in the Moscow group in 1920 when Gabo and Pevsner'sRealistic Manifesto asserted a spiritual core for the movement. This was opposed to the utilitarian and adaptable version of Constructivism held by Tatlin and Rodchenko. Tatlin's work was immediately hailed by artists in Germany as a revolution in art: a 1920 photograph showsGeorge Grosz andJohn Heartfield holding a placard saying 'Art is Dead – Long Live Tatlin's Machine Art', while the designs for the tower were published inBruno Taut's magazineFrühlicht. The tower was never built, however, due to a lack of money following the revolution.[5]
Tatlin's tower started a period of exchange of ideas between Moscow and Berlin, something reinforced by El Lissitzky andIlya Ehrenburg's Soviet-German magazineVeshch-Gegenstand-Objet which spread the idea of 'Construction art', as did the Constructivist exhibits at the 1922Russische Ausstellung in Berlin, organised by Lissitzky. AConstructivist International was formed, which met with Dadaists and De Stijl artists in Germany in 1922. Participants in this short-lived international included Lissitzky,Hans Richter, andLászló Moholy-Nagy. However the idea of 'art' was becoming anathema to the Russian Constructivists: the INKhUK debates of 1920–22 had culminated in the theory ofProductivism propounded byOsip Brik and others, which demanded direct participation in industry and the end of easel painting. Tatlin was one of the first to attempt to transfer his talents to industrial production, with his designs for an economical stove, for workers' overalls and for furniture. The Utopian element in Constructivism was maintained by his 'letatlin', a flying machine which he worked on until the 1930s.
In 1921, theNew Economic Policy was established in the Soviet Union, which opened up more market opportunities in the Soviet economy.Rodchenko,Stepanova, and others made advertising for the co-operatives that were now in competition with other commercial businesses. The poet-artistVladimir Mayakovsky and Rodchenko worked together and called themselves "advertising constructors". Together they designed eye-catching images featuring bright colours, geometric shapes, and bold lettering. The lettering of most of these designs was intended to create a reaction, and function emotionally – most were designed for the state-owned department storeMosselprom in Moscow, for pacifiers, cooking oil, beer and other quotidian products, with Mayakovsky claiming that his 'nowhere else but Mosselprom' verse was one of the best he ever wrote. Additionally, several artists tried to work with clothes design with varying success: Varvara Stepanova designed dresses with bright, geometric patterns that were mass-produced, although workers' overalls byTatlin and Rodchenko never achieved this and remained prototypes. The painter and designerLyubov Popova designed a kind of Constructivistflapper dress before her early death in 1924, the plans for which were published in the journalLEF. In these works, Constructivists showed a willingness to involve themselves in fashion and the mass market, which they tried to balance with their Communist beliefs.
The Soviet Constructivists organised themselves in the 1920s into the 'Left Front of the Arts', who produced the influential journalLEF, (which had two series, from 1923 to 1925 and from 1927 to 1929 asNew LEF). LEF was dedicated to maintaining the avant-garde against the critiques of the incipientSocialist Realism, and the possibility of a capitalist restoration, with the journal being particularly scathing about the 'NEPmen', the capitalists of the period. For LEF the new medium of cinema was more important than the easel painting and traditional narratives that elements of the Communist Party were trying to revive then. Important Constructivists were very involved with cinema, with Mayakovsky acting in the filmThe Young Lady and the Hooligan (1919), Rodchenko's designs for the intertitles and animated sequences ofDziga Vertov'sKino Eye (1924), andAleksandra Ekster designs for the sets and costumes of the science fiction filmAelita (1924).
The Productivist theorists Osip Brik andSergei Tretyakov also wrote screenplays and intertitles, for films such asVsevolod Pudovkin'sStorm over Asia (1928) or Victor Turin'sTurksib (1929). The filmmakers and LEF contributors Dziga Vertov andSergei Eisenstein as well as the documentaristEsfir Shub also regarded their fast-cut, montage style of filmmaking as Constructivist. The earlyEccentrist movies ofGrigori Kozintsev andLeonid Trauberg (The New Babylon,Alone) had similarly avant-garde intentions, as well as a fixation on jazz-age America which was characteristic of the philosophy, with its praise of slapstick-comedy actors likeCharlie Chaplin andBuster Keaton, as well as ofFordist mass production. Like the photomontages and designs of Constructivism, earlySoviet cinema concentrated on creating an agitating effect by montage and 'making strange'.
Although originated in Germany, photomontage was a popular art form for Constructivists to create visually striking art and a method to convey change; "[6]". The Constructivists were early developers of the techniques ofphotomontage. Gustav Klutsis' 'Dynamic City' and 'Electrification of the Entire Country' (1919–20) are the first examples of this method of montage, which had in common withDadaism the collaging together of news photographs and painted sections. Lissitzky's 'The Constructor' is one of many examples of photomontage that utilises photo collage to create a multi-layer composition. This brought forth the Constructor's artistic vision and technique of utilising 2D space with limited technology. However Constructivist montages would be less 'destructive' than those of Dadaism. Perhaps the most famous of these montages was Rodchenko's illustrations of the Mayakovsky poemAbout This.
LEF also helped popularise a distinctive style of photography, involving jagged angles and contrasts and abstract use of light, which paralleled the work ofLászló Moholy-Nagy in Germany: The major practitioners of this included, along with Rodchenko,Boris Ignatovich andMax Penson, among others. Kulagina, collaborating with Klutsis, utilised the use of photomontage to create political and personal posters of representative subjects from women in the workforce to satirise the humour of the local government. This also shared many characteristics with the early documentary movement.
Proposal for a PROUN street celebration,El Lissitzky, 1923.
The book designs of Rodchenko, El Lissitzky and others such asSolomon Telingater andAnton Lavinsky were a major inspiration for the work of radical designers in the West, particularlyJan Tschichold. Many Constructivists worked on the design of posters for everything from cinema to political propaganda: the former represented best by the brightly coloured, geometric posters of the Stenberg brothers (Georgii and Vladimir Stenberg), and the latter by the agitational photomontage work ofGustav Klutsis andValentina Kulagina.
The Constructivists' main early political patron wasLeon Trotsky, and it began to be regarded with suspicion after the expulsion of Trotsky and the Left Opposition in 1927–28. TheCommunist Party would gradually favour realist art during the course of the 1920s (as early as 1918Pravda had complained that government funds were being used to buy works by untried artists). However it was not until about 1934 that the counter-doctrine ofSocialist Realism was instituted in Constructivism's place. Many Constructivists continued to produce avant-garde work in the service of the state, such as Lissitzky, Rodchenko and Stepanova's designs for the magazineUSSR in Construction.
Constructivist architecture emerged from the wider constructivist art movement. After theRussian Revolution of 1917, it turned its attentions to the new social demands and industrial tasks required of the new regime. Two distinct threads emerged, the first was encapsulated in Antoine Pevsner's and Naum Gabo'sRealistic manifesto which was concerned with space and rhythm, the second represented a struggle within theCommissariat for Enlightenment between those who argued forpure art and theProductivists such as Alexander Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova and Vladimir Tatlin, a more socially oriented group who wanted this art to be absorbed in industrial production.[8]
A split occurred in 1922 when Pevsner and Gabo emigrated. The movement then developed along sociallyutilitarian lines. The productivist majority gained the support of theProletkult and the magazine LEF, and later became the dominant influence of the architectural groupO.S.A., directed byAlexander Vesnin andMoisei Ginzburg.
In the 1980s graphic designerNeville Brody used styles based on Constructivist posters that initiated a revival of popular interest. Also during the 1980s designer Ian Anderson foundedThe Designers Republic, a successful and influential design company which used constructivist principles.
So-called Deconstructivist architecture shares elements of approach with Constructivism (its name refers more to thedeconstruction literary approach). It was developed by architectsZaha Hadid,Rem Koolhaas and others during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Zaha Hadid by her sketches and drawings of abstract triangles and rectangles evokes the aesthetic of constructivism. Though similar formally, the socialist political connotations of Russian constructivism are deemphasized by Hadid's deconstructivism. Rem Koolhaas' projects revive another aspect of constructivism. Thescaffold andcrane-like structures represented by many constructivist architects are used for the finished forms of his designs and buildings.
Gubbins, Pete. 2017.Constructivism to Minimal Art: from Revolution via Evolution (Winterley: Winterley Press).ISBN978-0-9957554-0-6
Galvez, Paul. “Self-Portrait of the Artist as a Monkey-Hand.” October, vol. 93, 2000, pp. 109–37. JSTOR,https://doi.org/10.2307/779159. Accessed 15 Apr. 2023.
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