Think tanks publish articles and studies, and sometimes draftlegislation on particular matters of policy or society. This information is then used by governments, businesses, media organizations,social movements or other interest groups.[3][4] Think tanks range from those associated with highly academic or scholarly activities to those that are overtly ideological and pushing for particular policies, with a wide range among them in terms of the quality of their research. Later generations of think tanks have tended to be more ideologically oriented.[3]
Modern think tanks began as a phenomenon in theUnited Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with most of the rest being established in other English-speaking countries.[3][5] Prior to 1945, they tended to focus on the economic issues associated with industrialization and urbanization. During theCold War, many more American and otherWestern think tanks were established, which often guided government Cold War policy.[3][6][4] Since 1991, more think tanks have been established in non-Western parts of the world. More than half of all think tanks that exist today were established after 1980.[5] As of 2023, there are more than 11,000 think tanks around the world.[7]
According to historianJacob Soll, while the term "think tank" is modern, with its origintraced to the humanist academies and scholarly networks of the 16th and 17th centuries, evidence shows that,in Europe, the origins of think tanks go back to the 800s when emperors and kings began arguing with the Catholic Church about taxes. A tradition of hiring teams of independent lawyers to advise monarchs about their financial and political prerogatives against the church spans from Charlemagne all the way to the 17th century, when the kings of France were still arguing about whether they had the right to appoint bishops and receive a cut of their income.
Soll cites as an early example theAcadémie des frères Dupuy, created inParis around 1620 by the brothersPierre and Jacques Dupuy and also known after 1635 as thecabinet des frères Dupuy.[8] TheClub de l'Entresol, active in Paris between 1723 and 1731, was another prominent example of an early independent think tank focusing on public policy and current affairs, especially economics and foreign affairs.[9]
After 1945, the number of policy institutes increased, with many small new ones forming to express various issues and policy agendas. Until the 1940s, most think tanks were known only by the name of the institution. During the Second World War, think tanks were often referred to as "brain boxes".[13]
Before the 1950s, the phrase "think tank" did not refer to organizations. From its first appearances in the 1890s up to the 1950s, the phrase was most commonly used inAmerican English to colloquially refer to thebraincase or especially in a pejorative context to thehuman brain itself when commenting on an individual's failings (in the sense that something was wrong with that person's "think tank").[14]: 25 Around 1958, the first organization to be regularly described in published writings as "the Think Tank" (note thetitle case and the use of thedefinite article) was theCenter for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.[14]: 26 However, the Center does not count itself as and is not perceived to be a think tank in the contemporary sense.[14]: 26 During the 1960s, the phrase "think tank" was attached more broadly to meetings of experts,electronic computers,[14]: 27 and independent military planning organizations.[14]: 26 The prototype and most prominent example of the third category was theRAND Corporation, which was founded in 1946 as an offshoot ofDouglas Aircraft and became an independent corporation in 1948.[14]: 70 [15] In the 1970s, the phrase became more specifically defined in terms of RAND and others.[14]: 28 During the 1980s and 1990s, the phrase evolved again to arrive at its broader contemporary meaning of an independent public policy research institute.[14]: 28
For most of the 20th century, such institutes were found primarily in the United States, along with much smaller numbers in Canada, the United Kingdom, and Western Europe. Although think tanks had also existed inJapan for some time, they generally lacked independence, having close associations with government ministries or corporations. There has been a veritable proliferation of "think tanks" around the world that began during the 1980s as a result of globalization, the end of theCold War, and the emergence of transnational problems. Two-thirds of all the think tanks that exist today were established after 1970 and more than half were established since 1980.[5]
The effect ofglobalisation on the proliferation of think tanks is most evident in regions such as Africa, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and parts of Southeast Asia, where there was a concerted effort by other countries to assist in the creation of independent public policy research organizations. A survey performed by the Foreign Policy Research Institute'sThink Tanks and Civil Societies Program underscores the significance of this effort and documents the fact that most of the think tanks in these regions have been established since 1992.
As of 2014[update], there were more than 11,000 of these institutions worldwide.[16][17] Many of the more established think tanks, created during theCold War, are focused on international affairs, security studies, and foreign policy.[5]
Think tanks vary by ideological perspectives, sources of funding, topical emphasis and prospective consumers.[18] Funding may also represent who or what the institution wants to influence; in the United States, for example,Some donors want to influence votes in Congress or shape public opinion, others want to position themselves or the experts they fund for future government jobs, while others want to push specific areas of research or education.[18]
McGann distinguishes think tanks based on independence, source of funding and affiliation, grouping think tanks into autonomous and independent, quasi-independent, government affiliated, quasi-governmental, university affiliated, political-party affiliated or corporate.[19]
Think tanks may attempt to broadly inform the public by holding conferences to discuss issues which they may broadcast; encouraging scholars to give public lectures, testifying before committees of governmental bodies; publishing and widely distributing books, magazines, newsletters or journals; creatingmailing lists to distribute new publications; and engaging in social media.[23]: 90
Think tanks may privately influence policy by having their members accept bureaucratic positions, having members serve on political advisory boards, inviting policy-makers to events, allowing individuals to work at the think tank; employing former policy-makers; or preparing studies for policy makers.[23]: 95
The role of think tanks has been conceptualized through the lens of social theory. Plehwe argues that think tanks function asknowledge actors within a network of relationships with other knowledge actors. Such relationships including citing academics in publications or employing them on advisory boards, as well as relationships with media, political groups and corporate funders. They argue that these links allow for the construction of adiscourse coalition with a common aim, citing the example of deregulation of trucking, airlines, and telecommunications in the 1970s.[24]: 369 Plejwe argues that this deregulation represented a discourse coalition between theFord Motor Company,FedEx,neo-liberal economists, theBrookings Institution and theAmerican Enterprise Institute.[24]: 372
Elite theory considers how an "elite" influence the actions of think tanks and potentially bypass the political process, analysing the social background and values of those who work in think tanks. Pautz criticizes this viewpoint because there is in practice a variety of viewpoints in think tanks and argues it dismisses the influence that ideas can have.[25]: 424
In some cases, corporate interests,[26] military interests[1] and political groups have found it useful to create policy institutes, advocacy organizations, and think tanks. For example,The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition was formed in the mid-1990s to dispute research finding an association betweensecond-hand smoke andcancer.[27] Military contractors may spend a portion of their tender on funding pro-war think tanks.[1] According to an internal memorandum fromPhilip Morris Companies referring to theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),The credibility of the EPA is defeatable, but not on the basis of ETS [environmental tobacco smoke] alone,... It must be part of a larger mosaic that concentrates all the EPA's enemies against it at one time.[28]
According to the progressive media watchdogFairness & Accuracy in Reporting, both left-wing and right-wing policy institutes are often quoted and rarely identified as such. The result is that think tank "experts" are sometimes depicted as neutral sources without any ideological predispositions when, in fact, they represent a particular perspective.[29][30] In the United States, think tank publications on education are subjected to expert review by theNational Education Policy Center's "Think Twice" think tank review project.[31]
A 2014New York Times report asserted that foreign governments buy influence at many United States think tanks. According to the article:More than a dozen prominent Washington research groups have received tens of millions of dollars from foreign governments in recent years while pushing United States government officials to adopt policies that often reflect the donors' priorities.[32]
Ghana's first president,Kwame Nkrumah, set up various state-supported think tanks in the 1960s. By the 1990s, a variety of policy research centers sprang up in Africa set up by academics who sought to influence public policy in Ghana.
AMAQUEN,[33] founded in 2003, is a think tank in the field of education through its publications (rapports),[34][35] international scientific journalThe Journal ofQuality in Education,[36] and international events (CIMQUSEF).[37]
In China a number of think tanks are sponsored by governmental agencies such asDevelopment Research Center of the State Council, but still retain sufficient non-official status to be able to propose and debate ideas more freely. In January 2012, the first non-official think tank in mainland China, South Non-Governmental Think-Tank, was established in the Guangdong province.[38] In 2009 theChina Center for International Economic Exchanges was founded.
In Hong Kong, early think tanks established in the late 1980s and early 1990s focused on political development, including the first direct Legislative Council members election in 1991 and the political framework of "One Country, Two Systems", manifested in theSino-British Joint Declaration. After the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997, more think tanks were established by various groups of intellectuals and professionals. They have various missions and objectives including promoting civic education; undertaking research on economic, social and political policies; and promoting "public understanding of and participation in the political, economic, and social development of the Hong KongSpecial Administrative Region".
In Mumbai,Strategic Foresight Group is a global think tank that works on issues such aswater diplomacy,peace and conflict andforesight (futures studies). Think tanks with a development focus include those like theNational Centre for Cold-chain Development ('NCCD'), which serve to bring an inclusive policy change by supporting the Planning Commission and related government bodies with industry-specific inputs – in this case, set up at the behest of the government to direct cold chain development. Some think tanks have a fixed set of focus areas and they work towards finding out policy solutions to social problems in the respective areas.
Initiatives such asNational e-Governance Plan (to automate administrative processes)[43] andNational Knowledge Network (NKN) (for data and resource sharing amongst education and research institutions), if implemented properly, should help improve the quality of work done by think tanks.[44]
Over 50 think tanks have emerged in Iraq, particularly in the Kurdistan Region. Iraq's leading think tank is the Middle East Research Institute (MERI),[45] based in Erbil. MERI is an independent non-governmental policy research organization, established in 2014 and publishes in English, Kurdish, and Arabic. It was listed in the global ranking by the United States's Lauder Institute of theUniversity of Pennsylvania as 46th in the Middle East.[46]
InSouth Korea, think tanks are prolific and influential and are a government go-to. Think tanks are prolific in the Korean landscape. Many policy research organisations in Korea focus on economoy and most research is done in public think tanks. There is a strong emphasis on the knowledge-based economy and, according to one respondent, think tank research is generally considered high quality.[48]
Japan has over 100 think tanks, most of which cover not only policy research but also economy, technology and so on. Some are government related, but most of the think tanks are sponsored by the private sector.[49]
Institute of World Economics and Politics (IWEP) at the Foundation of the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan was created in 2003. IWEP activities aimed at research problems of the world economy, international relations, geopolitics, security, integration and Eurasia, as well as the study of the First President of theRepublic of Kazakhstan and its contribution to the establishment and strengthening of Kazakhstan as an independent state, the development of international cooperation and the promotion of peace and stability.[50][51]
The Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies under the President of the RK (KazISS) was established by the Decree of the President of RK on 16 June 1993. Since its foundation the main mission of the Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as a national think tank, is to maintain analytical and research support for the President of Kazakhstan.[52]
Most Malaysian think tanks are related either to the government or a political party. Historically they focused on defense, politics and policy. However, in recent years, think tanks that focus on international trade, economics, and social sciences have also been founded.
Pakistan's think tanks mainly revolve around social policy, internal politics, foreign security issues, and regional geo-politics. Most of these are centered on the capital,Islamabad. One such think tank is the Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI), which focuses on policy advocacy and research particularly in the area of environment and social development.
Another policy research institute based in Islamabad is theInstitute of Social and Policy Sciences (I-SAPS) which works in the fields of education, health, disaster risk reduction,governance, conflict and stabilization. Since 2007 – 2008, I-SAPS has been analyzing public expenditure of federal and provincial governments.[53]
Think tanks in the Philippines could be generally categorized in terms of their linkages with the national government. Several were set up by the Philippine government for the specific purpose of providing research input into the policy-making process.[54]
LIRNEasia is a think tank working across the Asia-Pacific on regulatory and policy issues. Their main focus is the ICT sector, although they do work in other sectors, such as agriculture and health, which can benefit from ICT.
Verité Research is an interdisciplinary think tank in Colombo.
There are several think tanks in Singapore that advise the government on various policies and as well as private ones for corporations within the region. Many of them are hosted within the local public educational institutions.
The UAE has been a center for political oriented think tanks which concentrate on both regional and global policy. Notable think tank have emerged in the global debate on terrorism, education & economical policies in the MENA region. Think tanks include:
CED[58] – Center for Economic Development (Центр Содействия Экономическому Развитию) is a think tank whose major tasks are: analytic support in economic reforming and development in Uzbekistan; improving knowledge and skills of the subjects of economic development; assistance in productive dialogue between the government, civil society and private sectors on the economic development matters.
Key projects: Preparation of the National human development report for Uzbekistan, Sociological "portrait" of the Uzbek businessman, Preparation of an analytical report on export procedures optimization in Uzbekistan,various industry and marketing researches in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.
In addition to specific independent think tanks, the largest political parties have their own think tank organizations. This is mainly due to support granted by state for such activity. Examples of such think tanks are theGreen Think Tank Visio [fi][67] andSuomen Perusta.[68] The corporate world has focused their efforts to central representative organizationConfederation of Finnish Industries, which acts as think tank in addition to negotiating salaries with workers unions. Furthermore, there is the Finnish Business and Policy Forum (Elinkeinoelämän valtuuskunta, EVA). Agricultural and regional interests, associated with The Central Union of Agricultural Producers and Forest Owners (Maa- ja metsätaloustuottajain Keskusliitto, MTK) and theCentre Party, are researched by Pellervo Economic Research (Pellervon taloustutkimus, PTT). TheCentral Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions (Suomen Ammattiliittojen Keskusjärjestö, SAK) and theSocial Democratic Party are associated with the Labour Institute for Economic Research (Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos, PT). Each of these organizations often release forecasts concerning the national economy.
TheFrench Institute of International Relations (IFRI) was founded in 1979 and is the third oldest think tank of western Europe, after Chatham House (UK, 1920) and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (Sweden, 1960). The primary goals of IFRI are to develop applied research in the field of public policy related to international issues, and foster interactive and constructive dialogue between researchers, professionals, and opinion leaders. France also hosts theEuropean Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS), aParis-basedagency of the European Union and think tank researching security issues of relevance for theEU. There are also a number of pro-business think tanks, notably the Paris-based Fondation Concorde.[69] The foundation focuses on increasing the competitiveness of French SME's and aims to revive entrepreneurship in France.
On the left, the main think tanks in France are theFondation Jean-Jaurès, which is organizationally linked to theFrench Socialist Party, andTerra Nova. Terra Nova is an independent left-leaning think tank, although it is nevertheless considered to be close to the Socialists. It works on producing reports and analyses of current public policy issues from a progressive point of view, and contributing to the intellectual renewal of social democracy.
The only French Think Tank mentioned in the "think tanks to watch" list of the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report[70]GenerationLibre [fr] is a French think tank created by Gaspard Koenig in 2013, independent from all political parties, which aims at promoting freedoms in France, in terms of fundamental rights, economics and societal issues. GenerationLibre is described as being able to connect to the right on pro business freedom and regulations issues but also to the left on issues such as basic income, gay marriage and the legalization of marijuana.
TheEconomic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) is an independent research institute in Dublin, Ireland. Its research focuses on Ireland's economic and social development to inform policy-making and societal understanding.
While think tanks are not widespread in Latvia, as opposed to single-issue advocacy organizations, there are several noticeable institutions in the Latvian think tank landscape:
The oldest think tank in Latvia isthe Latvian Institute of International Affairs.[71] LIIA is a non governmental and non partisan foundation, established in 1992, and their research and advocacy mainly focuses on Latvian foreign policy; Transatlantic relations; European Union policies, including its neighborhood policy and Eastern Partnership; and multilateral and bilateral relations with Russia.
Centre for Public policy PROVIDUS[72] is a non governmental and non partisan association, established in 2002. Providus focuses their work (both research and advocacy) on topics especially relevant in transition and post-transition environments and Latvia in particular: good governance; criminal justice policy; tolerance and inclusive public policy and European policy.
Several think tanks are established and operate under the auspices of Universities, such as:
Centre for European and transition studies[73] is a think tank working under the auspices of the University of Latvia, the largest public university in the country. CETS was established in 2000.
or Defense research centre[74] in 1992 under the auspices of the National Academy of Defense.
Vilnius Institute for Policy Analysis (VIPA) is an independent non-governmental, non-profit, non-partisan policy think tank in Lithuania whose mission is to stand for the principles of open society, liberal democracy, rule of law and human rights. VIPA acts via advocacy for strong and safe European Union, analyzing and advocating for anti-authoritarian, transparent, and open governance ideas in Central and Eastern Europe, is an opinion leader offering an alternative opinion to the public versus populism, radicalism, and authoritarian trends, reinforcing active citizens' participation in decision making, analyzing fake news, disinformation, and offering media literacy initiatives, putting forward solutions to improve the accountability, transparency, and openness of Lithuania'spublic sector, building a network of open society values oriented experts, civil activists and NGO's.[75]
Founded in 1970, theSEDES is one of the oldest Portuguese civic associations and think tanks.Contraditório think tank was founded in 2008. Contraditório is a non-profit, independent and non-partisan think tank.
GLOBSEC – Global think tank committed to enhancing security, prosperity and sustainability in Europe and throughout the world.
Central European Labour Studies Institute orCELSI (Stredoeurópsky inštitút pre výskum práce inSlovak) – Central-european think tank which specializes in broadly defined labor issues, labour markets, and labor policy.
Forum Minority Research Institute (Fórum Kisebbségkutató Intézet orFórum Intézet inHungarian andFórum inštitút pre výskum menšín orFórum inštitút inSlovak) – Think tank focusing on ethnic minorities living in Slovakia, especially Hungarians.
International think tanks with presence in Slovakia:
Institute of Public Affairs (Inštitút pre verejné otázky orIVO inSlovak) – Australian-based think tank focusing on public policy issues.
Open Society Foundations orOSF – US-based think tank with an aim of advancing justice, education, public health and independent media.
Martens Centre (via the Anton Tunega Foundation[76]) – Belgium-based think tank and political foundation of the European People's Party (EPP) which embodies a pan-European mindset and promotes Christian-democratic and liberal-conservative political values.
TheElcano Royal Institute was created in 2001 following the example of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) in the UK, although it is closely linked to (and receives funding from) the government in power.[77]
More independent but clearly to the left of the political spectrum are the Centro de Investigaciones de Relaciones Internacionales y Desarrollo (CIDOB) founded in 1973; and the Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior (FRIDE) established in 1999 by Diego Hidalgo and main driving force behind projects such as the Club de Madrid, a group of democratic former heads of state and government, the Foreign Policy Spanish Edition andDARA.[citation needed]
Former Prime MinisterJosé Maria Aznar presides over the Fundación para el Analisis y los Estudios Sociales (FAES), a policy institute that is associated with the conservative Popular Party (PP). Also linked to the PP is the Grupo de Estudios Estratégicos (GEES), which is known for its defense- and security-related research and analysis. For its part, theFundación Alternativas is independent but close to left-wing ideas. The SocialistPartido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) created Fundación Ideas in 2009 and dissolved it in January 2014. Also in 2009, the centristUnion, Progress and Democracy (UPyD) created Fundación Progreso y Democracia (FPyD).
Razumkov Centre, a non-governmental think tank founded in 1994. It carries out research of public policy in the following spheres: domestic policy; state administration; economic policy; energy; land relations; foreign policy; social policy; international and regional security; national security and defense.
In Britain, think tanks play a similar role to the United States, attempting to shape policy, and indeed there is some cooperation between British and American think tanks. For example, the London-based think tankChatham House and theCouncil on Foreign Relations were both conceived at theParis Peace Conference, 1919 and have remained sister organisations.
Private sources fund about 20 to 30 "independent" Australian think tanks.[83] The best-known of these think tanks play a much more limited role in Australian public and business policy-making than do their equivalents in the United States. However, in the past decade[which?] the number of think tanks has increased substantially.[84] Prominent Australian conservative think tanks includethe Centre for Independent Studies, theSydney Institute and theInstitute of Public Affairs. Prominent leftist Australian think tanks includethe McKell Institute, Per Capita, the Australia Institute, theLowy Institute and the Centre for Policy Development. In recent years[when?] regionally-based independent and non-partisan think tanks have emerged.[citation needed]
Some think tanks, such as theIllawarra's i-eat-drink-think, engage in discussion, research and advocacy within a broader civics framework. Commercial think tanks like the Gartner Group, Access Economics, the Helmsman Institute, and others provide additional insight which complements not-for-profit organisations such asCEDA, theAustralian Strategic Policy Institute, and theAustralian Institute of Company Directors to provide more targeted policy in defence, program governance, corporate governance and similar.[citation needed]
CIDAC – The Center of Research for Development (Centro de Investigación para el Desarrollo, Asociación Civil) is a not-for-profit think tank that undertakes research and proposes viable policy options for Mexico's economic and democratic development. The organization seeks to promote open, pluralistic debate pursuing: the Rule of Law & Democracy, market economics, social development, and strengthening Mexico-United States relations.
CIDE – The Center of Research and Economics Teaching (Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas) is a think tank institute focussing on "public policies", "public choice", "democracy", and "economy".
COMEXI – The Mexican Council of International Affairs (Consejo Mexicano de Asuntos Internacionales).
In collaboration with the Douglas Aircraft Company, the Air Force set up theRAND Corporation in 1946 to develop weapons technology and strategic defense analysis.
TheHudson Institute is a conservative American think tank founded in 1961 by futurist, military strategist, and systems theorist Herman Kahn and his colleagues at the RAND Corporation. Recent members include Mike Pompeo, the former secretary of state under Donald Trump who joined in 2021.[93]
More recently, progressive and liberal think tanks have been established, most notably theCenter for American Progress and the Center for Research on Educational Access and Leadership (CREAL). The organization has close ties to former United States PresidentBarack Obama and other prominent Democrats.[94]
Think tanks have been important allies for United States presidents since theReagan administration, writing and suggesting policies to implement, and providing staff for the administration. For recent conservative presidents, think tanks such as theHeritage Foundation, theHoover Institution, and theAmerican Enterprise Institute (AEI) were closely associated with the Reagan administration. The H.W. Bush administration worked closely with AEI, and the W. Bush administration worked closely with AEI and the Hoover Institution. The Trump administration works closely with the Heritage Foundation. For recent liberal presidents, theProgressive Policy Institute and its parent theDemocratic Leadership Council were closely associated with Clinton, and theCenter for American Progress was closely associated with the Obama and Biden administrations.[95]
Think tanks help shape both foreign and domestic policy. They receive funding from private donors, and members of private organizations. By 2013, the largest 21 think tanks in the US spent more thanUS$1billion per year.[96] Think tanks may feel more free to propose and debate controversial ideas than people within government. The progressive media watchdog Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) has identified the top 25 think tanks by media citations, noting that from 2006 to 2007 the number of citations declined 17%.[97] The FAIR report reveals the ideological breakdown of the citations: 37% conservative, 47% centrist, and 16% liberal. Their data show that the most-cited think tank was theBrookings Institution, followed by theCouncil on Foreign Relations, theAmerican Enterprise Institute,The Heritage Foundation, and theCenter for Strategic and International Studies.
This article needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2023)
In 2016, in response to scrutiny about think tanks appearing to have a "conflict of interest" or lack transparency, executive vice president, Martin S. Indyk of Brookings Institution – the "most prestigious think tank in the world"[98] admitted that they had "decided to prohibit corporations or corporate-backed foundations from making anonymous contributions." In August 2016,The New York Times published a series on think tanks that blur the line. One of the cases the journalists cited was Brookings, where scholars paid by a seemingly independent think tank "push donors' agendas amplifying a culture of corporate influence in Washington." For example, in exchange for hundreds of thousands of dollars the Brookings Institution providedLennar – one of the United States' largest home builders – with a significant advantage in pursuing a US$8billion revitalization project in Hunters Point, San Francisco. In 2014, Lennar's then-regional vice president in charge of the San Francisco revitalization, Kofi Bonner was named as a Brookings senior fellow – a position as 'trusted adviser' that carries some distinction. Bruce Katz, a Brookings vice president, also offered to help Lennar "engage with national media to develop stories that highlight Lennar's innovative approach."[98]
The government funds, wholly or in part, activities at approximately 30Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs). FFRDCs, are unique independent nonprofit entities sponsored and funded by the United States government to meet specific long-term technical needs that cannot be met by any other single organization. FFRDCs typically assist government agencies with scientific research and analysis, systems development, and systems acquisition. They bring together the expertise and outlook of government, industry, and academia to solve complex technical problems. These FFRDCs include theRAND Corporation, theMITRE Corporation, theInstitute for Defense Analyses, theAerospace Corporation, theMIT Lincoln Laboratory, and other organizations supporting various departments within the United States Government.
Similar to the above quasi-governmental organizations areFederal Advisory Committees. These groups, sometimes referred to as commissions, are a form of think tank dedicated to advising the US Presidents or the Executive branch of government. They typically focus on a specific issue and as such, might be considered similar to special interest groups. However, unlike special interest groups these committees have come under some oversight regulation and are required to make formal records available to the public. As of 2002, about 1,000 of these advisory committees were described in the FACA searchable database.[99]
Research done by Enrique Mendizabal[100] shows that South American think tanks play various roles depending on their origins, historical development and relations to other policy actors. In this study, Orazio Bellettini fromGrupo FARO suggests that they:[101]
Seek political support for policies.
Legitimize policies. This has been clearer inEcuador,Bolivia andPeru. New governments in Ecuador and Peru have approached policy institutes for support for already defined policies. In Bolivia, the government ofEvo Morales has been working with Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and other research institutes to do the same. However, in Chile, many think tanks during the 1990s seemed to endorse and maintain the legitimacy of policies implemented during the previous decade bythe military dictatorship headed by Pinochet.
Act as Spaces for debate. In this case think tanks serve as sounding boards for new policies. InChile, during the Pinochet dictatorship, many left wing intellectuals and researchers found 'asylum' in think tanks. In Ecuador, think tanks are seen as spaces where politicians can test the soundness of their policies and government plans.
Provide financial channels for political parties or other interest groups. In Ecuador and Bolivia, German foundations have been able to provide funds to think tanks that work with certain political parties. This method has provided support to the system as a whole rather than individual CSOs.
Supply expert staff of policy-makers. In Peru after the end of theFujimori regime, and in Chile after the fall of Pinochet, think tank staff left to form part of the new governments. In the United States, the role of major think tanks is precisely that: host scholars for a few months or years and then lose them to government employ.
How a policy institute addresses these largely depends on how they work, their ideology vs. evidence credentials, and the context in which they operate including funding opportunities, the degree and type of competition they have and their staff.
This functional method addresses the inherit challenge of defining a think tank. As Simon James said in 1998, "Discussion of think tanks...has a tendency to get bogged down in the vexed question of defining what we mean by 'think tank'—an exercise that often degenerates into futile semantics."[102] It is better (as in the Network Functions Approach) to describe what the organisation should do. Then the shape of the organisation should follow to allow this to happen. The following framework (based on Stephen Yeo's description of think tanks' mode of work) is described in Enrique Mendizabal's blog "onthinktanks":
First, policy institutes may work in or base their funding on one or more of:[103]
Independent research: this would be work done with core or flexible funding that allows the researchers the liberty to choose their research questions and method. It may be long term and could emphasize 'big ideas' without direct policy relevance. However, it could emphasize a major policy problem that requires a thorough research and action investment.
Consultancy: this would be work done by commission with specific clients and addressing one or two major questions. Consultancies often respond to an existing agenda.
Influencing/advocacy: this would be work done by communications, capacity development, networking, campaigns, lobbying, etc. It is likely to be based on research based evidence emerging from independent research or consultancies.
Second, policy institutes may base their work or arguments on:
Ideology, values or interests
Applied, empirical or synthesis research
Theoretical or academic research
According to theNational Institute for Research Advancement, a Japanese policy institute, think tanks are "one of the main policy actors in democratic societies ..., assuring a pluralistic, open and accountable process of policy analysis, research, decision-making and evaluation".[104] A study in early 2009 found a total of 5,465 think tanks worldwide. Of that number, 1,777 were based in the United States and approximately 350 in Washington, DC, alone.[105]
As of 2009,Argentina is home to 122 think tanks, many specializing inpublic policy andeconomics issues. Argentina ranks fifth in the number of these institutions worldwide.[106]
Working on public policies, Brazil hosts, for example,Instituto Liberdade, a University-based Center at Tecnopuc inside thePontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, located in the South Region of the country, in the city ofPorto Alegre. Instituto Liberdade is among the Top 40 think tanks in Latin America and the Caribbean, according to the 2009 Global Go To Think Tanks Index[107] a report from the University of Pennsylvania's Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program (TTCSP).
Fundação Getulio Vargas (Getulio Vargas Foundation (FGV)) is a Brazilian higher education institution. Its original goal was to train people for the country's public- and private-sector management. Today it hosts faculties (Law, Business, Economics, Social Sciences and Mathematics), libraries, and also research centers in Rio, São Paulo and Brasilia. It is considered byForeign Policy magazine to be a top-five "policymaker think tank" worldwide.
TheIgarapé Institute is a Brazilian think tank focusing on public, climate, and digital security.[108]
According to research done by the University of Pennsylvania, there are a total of 12 think tanks in Azerbaijan.
The Center for Economic and Social Development, or CESD; in Azeri, Azerbaijan, İqtisadi və Sosial İnkişaf Mərkəzi (İSİM) is anAzeri think tank,non-profit organization,NGO based inBaku, Azerbaijan. The center was established in 2005. CESD focuses on policy advocacy and reform, and is involved with policy research and capacity building.
TheEconomic Research Center (ERC) is a policy-research oriented non-profit think tank established in 1999 with a mission to facilitate sustainable economic development and good governance in the new public management system of Azerbaijan. It seeks to do this by building favorable interactions between the public, private and civil society and working with different networks both in local (EITI NGO Coalition, National Budget Group, Public Coalition Against Poverty, etc.) and international levels (PWYP, IBP, ENTO, ALDA, PASOS, WTO NGO Network etc.).[110]
The Center for Strategic Studies under the President of Azerbaijan is a governmental, non-profit think tank founded in 2007. It focuses on domestic and foreign policy.
According to theForeign Policy Research Institute, Russia has 112 think tanks, while Russian think tanks claimed four of the top ten spots in 2011's "Top Thirty Think Tanks in Central and Eastern Europe".[111]
Notable Russian think tanks include:
Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation
Turkish think tanks are relatively new, having emerged in the 1960's.[112] There are at least 20 think tanks in the country, both independent and supported by government. Many of them are sister organizations of political parties, universities or companies some are independent and others are supported by government. Most Turkish think tanks provide research and ideas, yet they play less important roles in policy making than American think tanks. Turksam, Tasam and theJournal of Turkish Weekly are the leading information sources.
The oldest and most influential think tank in Turkey is ESAM (The Center for Economic and Social Research;Turkish:Ekonomik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Merkezi) which was established in 1969 and has headquarters in Ankara. There are also branch offices of ESAM in Istanbul, Bursa, Konya and elsewhere. ESAM has strong international relationships, especially with Muslim countries and societies. Ideologically it performs policies, produces ideas and manages projects in parallel toMilli Görüş and also influences political parties and international strategies. The founder and leader of Milli Görüş,Necmettin Erbakan, was very concerned with the activities and brainstorming events of ESAM. In The Republic of Turkey, two presidents, four prime ministers, various ministers, many members of the parliament, and numerous mayors and bureaucrats have been members of ESAM. Currently the General Chairman of ESAM isRecai Kutan (former minister for two different ministries, former main opposition party leader, and founder and General Chairman of theSaadet Party).[citation needed]
TheTurkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation (TESEV) is another leading think tank. Established in 1994, TESEV is an independent non-governmental think tank, analyzing social, political and economic policy issues facing Turkey. TESEV has raised issues about Islam and democracy, combating corruption, state reform, and transparency and accountability. TESEV serve as a bridge between academic research and policy-making. Its core program areas are democratization, good governance, and foreign policy.[113]
^"2017 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report".Think Tanks and Civil Societies Programs Univ. of Pennsylvania. Lauder Institute, University of Pennsylvania. 31 January 2018.Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved10 March 2018.
^McGann, James G. (2017)."2016 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report".TTCSP Global Go to Think Tank Index Reports. University of Pennsylvania.Archived from the original on 30 October 2019. Retrieved19 July 2022.
^"Activities".Åland Islands Peace Institute – Ålands fredsinstitut. Archived fromthe original on 25 March 2013. Retrieved22 February 2018.
^"Demos Helsinki".onthinktanks.org. On Think Tanks.Archived from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved4 September 2021.
^Standish, Reid (18 January 2018)."Inside a European Center to Combat Russia's Hybrid Warfare".Foreign Policy.Archived from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved22 January 2018.Located in an unassuming office building filled with boardrooms, lecture halls, and projectors in the Finnish capital, a new entity under the joint auspices of the European Union and NATO was founded with a herculean mission. [...] In this vein, the hybrid center is more of an in-house think tank than a task force dedicated to debunking propaganda or tracking hackers in cyberspace.
^"Introduction".FIIA – The Finnish Institute of International Affairs.Archived from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved22 February 2018.The Finnish Institute of International Affairs is a research institute whose mission is to produce high quality, topical information on international relations and the EU.
^McGann, James (2017)."2016 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report".TTCSP Global Go to Think Tank Index Reports. TTCSP Global Go To Think Tank Index Reports. 12. (12). University of Pennsylvania.Archived from the original on 6 June 2017. Retrieved22 February 2018.
^The Global Go To Think Tanks Report 2011(PDF) (Report). University of Pennsylvania. 18 January 2012. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved19 February 2018 – via Foreign Policy Research Institute.
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Ladi, Stella.Globalisation, Policy Transfer And Policy Research Institutes, Edward Elgar, 2005.
Ranquet, Robert.Think Tanks and the National Security Strategy Formulation Process: A Comparison of Current American and French Patterns, 1997.PDF
Roberts, Priscilla (2015). "A century of international affairs think tanks in historical perspective".International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis.70 (4):535–555.doi:10.1177/0020702015590591.hdl:10722/210910.S2CID155138921.
Smith, James. A.The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite, New York: The Free Press, 1991.
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UNDP – United Nations Development Program.Thinking the Unthinkable, Bratislava, UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 2003
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