Conscription, also known asthe draft inAmerican English, is the practice in which the compulsory enlistment in anational service, mainly amilitary service, is enforced by law.[1] Conscription dates back toantiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of near-universal national conscription for young men dates to theFrench Revolution in the 1790s, where it became the basis of a very large and powerfulmilitary. MostEuropean nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1 to 8 years onactive duty and then transfer to thereserve force.[2]
Conscription is controversial for a range of reasons, includingconscientious objection to military engagements on religious or philosophical grounds; political objection, for example to service for a disliked government or unpopular war;sexism, in that historically only men have been subject to the draft; and ideological objection, for example, to a perceived violation of individual rights. Those conscripted mayevade service, sometimes by leaving the country,[3] and seekingasylum in another country. Some selection systems accommodate these attitudes by providingalternative service outsidecombat-operations roles or even outside the military, such assiviilipalvelus (alternative civil service) inFinland andZivildienst (compulsory community service) inAustria andSwitzerland. Several countries conscript male soldiers not only for armed forces, but also for paramilitary agencies, which are dedicated topolice-likedomestic-only service likeinternal troops,border guards ornon-combatrescue duties likecivil defence.
As of 2025, many states no longer conscript their citizens, relying instead upon professional militaries withvolunteers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities. Many states that have abolished conscription still, therefore, reserve the power to resume conscription during wartime or times of crisis.[4] States involved in wars or interstate rivalries are most likely to implement conscription, and democracies are less likely than autocracies to implement conscription.[5] With a few exceptions, such as Singapore and Egypt, former British colonies are less likely to have conscription, as they are influenced by British anti-conscription norms that can be traced back to theEnglish Civil War; theUnited Kingdom abolished conscription in 1960.[5]Conscription in the United States has not been enforced since 1973. Conscription was ended in most European countries, with the system still being in force inScandinavian countries, Finland, Switzerland, Austria, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey and several countries of the formerEastern Bloc.
Around the reign ofHammurabi (1791–1750BC), theBabylonian Empire used a system of conscription calledIlkum. Under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were instead required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for this service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold landper se but specific land supplied by the state.[6]
Various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by theCode of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have been practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded. In other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them. With the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi.[7]
Under thefeudal laws on the European continent, landowners in the medieval period enforced a system whereby allpeasants,freemen commoners andnoblemen aged 15 to 60 living in the countryside or in urban centers, were summoned for military duty when required by either the king or the local lord, bringing along the weapons and armor according to their wealth. These levies fought as footmen, sergeants, and men at arms under local superiors appointed by the king or the local lord such as thearrière-ban in France. Arrière-ban denoted a general levy, where all able-bodied males age 15 to 60 living in the Kingdom of France were summoned to go to war by the King (or the constable and the marshals). Men were summoned by the bailiff (or the sénéchal in the south).Bailiffs were military and political administrators installed by the King to steward and govern a specific area of a province following the king's commands and orders. The men summoned in this way were then summoned by the lieutenant who was the King's representative and military governor over an entire province comprising manybailiwicks, seneschalties and castellanies. All men from the richest noble to the poorest commoner were summoned under the arrière-ban and they were supposed to present themselves to the King or his officials.[8][9][10][11]
In medievalScandinavia theleiðangr (Old Norse),leidang (Norwegian),leding, (Danish),ledung (Swedish),lichting (Dutch),expeditio (Latin) or sometimesleþing (Old English), was a levy of free farmers conscripted into coastal fleets for seasonal excursions and in defence of the realm.[12]
The bulk of theAnglo-Saxon English army, called thefyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the freemen of each county. In the 690s laws ofIne of Wessex, three levels of fines are imposed on different social classes for neglecting military service.[13]
Some modern writers claim military service in Europe was restricted to the landowning minor nobility. Thesethegns were the land-holding aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour and weapons for a certain number of days each year. The historian David Sturdy has cautioned about regarding thefyrd as a precursor to a modern national army composed of all ranks of society, describing it as a "ridiculous fantasy":
The persistent old belief that peasants and small farmers gathered to form a national army orfyrd is a strange delusion dreamt up by antiquarians in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries to justify universal military conscription.[14]
Painting depicting a battle during the Ōnin War
Infeudal Japan theshogun decree of 1393 exemptedmoney lenders from religious or military levies, in return for a yearly tax. TheŌnin War weakened the shogun and levies were imposed again on money lenders. Thisoverlordism was arbitrary and unpredictable for commoners. While the money lenders were not poor, several overlords tapped them for income. Levies became necessary for the survival of the overlord, allowing the lord to impose taxes at will. These levies includedtansen tax onagricultural land for ceremonial expenses. Yakubu takumai tax was raised on all land to rebuild theIse Grand Shrine, andmunabechisen tax was imposed on allhouses. At the time, land inKyoto was acquired by commoners throughusury and in 1422 the shogun threatened to repossess the land of those commoners who failed to pay their levies.[15]
Over time, Mamluks became a powerful military knightly class in variousMuslim societies that were controlled by dynastic Arab rulers.[46] Particularly inEgypt andSyria,[47] but also in theOttoman Empire,Levant,Mesopotamia, and India, mamluks held political and military power.[24] In some cases, they attained the rank ofsultan, while in others they held regional power asemirs orbeys.[28] Most notably, Mamluk factions seized the sultanate centered onEgypt andSyria, and controlled it as theMamluk Sultanate (1250–1517).[48] The Mamluk Sultanate famously defeated theIlkhanate at theBattle of Ain Jalut. They had earlier fought the western European ChristianCrusaders in 1154–1169 and 1213–1221, effectively driving them out of Egypt and the Levant.In 1302 the Mamluk Sultanate formally expelled the last Crusaders from the Levant, ending the era of the Crusades.[24][49] While Mamluks were purchased as property,[50] their status was above ordinary slaves, who were not allowed to carry weapons or perform certain tasks.[51] In places such as Egypt, from theAyyubid dynasty to the time ofMuhammad Ali of Egypt, mamluks were considered to be "true lords" and "true warriors", with social status above the general population inEgypt and theLevant.[24] In a sense, they were likeenslavedmercenaries.[53]
In later years, Ottoman sultans turned to theBarbary Pirates to supply the Janissary Corps. Their attacks on ships off the coast of Africa or in the Mediterranean, and subsequent capture of able-bodied men for ransom or sale provided some captives for the Ottoman state. From the 17th century onwards, thedevşirme system became obsolete.[54] Eventually, the Ottoman sultan turned to foreign volunteers from the warrior clans ofCircassians in southern Russia to fill the Janissary Corps. As a whole the system began to break down, the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. The Janissary Corps was abolished byMahmud II in 1826 in theAuspicious Incident, in which 6,000 or more wereexecuted.[76] On thewestern coast of Africa, Berber Muslims capturednon-Muslims to put to work as laborers. InMorocco, the Berbers looked south rather than north. The Moroccan sultanMoulay Ismail, called "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727), employed a corps of 150,000black slaves, called the "Black Guard". He used them to coerce the country into submission.[77]
Modern conscription, the massed military enrollment of national citizens (levée en masse), was devised during theFrench Revolution, to enable theRepublic to defend itself from the attacks of European monarchies. DeputyJean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the 5 September 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation." It enabled the creation of theGrande Armée, whatNapoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which overwhelmed European professional armies that often numbered only into the low tens of thousands. More than 2.6 million men were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813.[78]
The defeat of thePrussian Army in particular shocked thePrussian establishment, which had believed it was invincible after the victories ofFrederick the Great. The Prussians were used to relying on superior organization and tactical factors such as order of battle to focus superior troops against inferior ones. Given approximately equivalent forces, as was generally the case with professional armies, these factors showed considerable importance. However, they became considerably less important when the Prussian armies faced Napoleon's forces that outnumbered their own in some cases by more than ten to one.Scharnhorst advocated adopting thelevée en masse, the military conscription used by France. TheKrümpersystem was the beginning of short-term compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used.[79]
In theRussian Empire, the military service time "owed" by serfs was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits were to be not younger than 17 and not older than 35.[80] In 1874 Russia introduced universal male conscription in the modern pattern, an innovation only made possible by the abolition ofserfdom in 1861. New military law decreed that all male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20, were eligible to serve in the military for six years.[81]
In the decades prior to World War I universal male conscription along broadly Prussian lines became the norm for European armies, and those modeled on them. By 1914 the only substantial armies still completely dependent on voluntary enlistment were those of Britain and the United States. Some colonial powers such as France reserved their conscript armies for home service while maintaining professional units for overseas duties.[82]
Young men registering for conscription duringWorld War I, New York City, June 5, 1917
The range of eligible ages for conscripting was expanded to meet national demand during theWorld Wars.In the United States, theSelective Service System drafted men for World War I initially in an age range from 21 to 30 but expanded its eligibility in 1918 to an age range of 18 to 45.[83] In the case of a widespreadmobilization of forces where service includes homefront defense, ages of conscripts may range much higher, with the oldest conscripts serving in roles requiring lesser mobility.[citation needed]
Expanded-age conscription was common during the Second World War: in Britain, it was commonly known as "call-up" and extended to age 51.Nazi Germany termed itVolkssturm ("People's Storm") and included boys as young as 16 and men as old as 60.[84] During the Second World War, both Britain and the Soviet Union conscripted women. The United States was on the verge of drafting women into the Nurse Corps because it anticipated it would need the extra personnel for its planned invasion of Japan. However, the Japanese surrendered and the idea was abandoned.[85]
Men's rights activists,[87][88]feminists,[89][90][91] and opponents of discrimination against men[92][93]: 102 have criticized military conscription, or compulsory military service, assexist. The National Coalition for Men, amen's rights group,sued the USSelective Service System in 2019, leading to it being declared unconstitutional by a US Federal Judge.[94][95] The federal district judge's opinion was unanimously overturned on appeal to theU.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit.[96] In September 2021, the House of Representatives passed the annual Defense Authorization Act, which included an amendment that states that "all Americans between the ages of 18 and 25 must register for selective service." This amendment omitted the word "male", which would have extended a potential draft to women; however, the amendment was removed before the National Defense Authorization Act was passed.[97][98][99]
Feminists have argued, first, that military conscription is sexist because wars serve the interests of what they view as thepatriarchy; second, that the military is a sexist institution and that conscripts are therefore indoctrinated into sexism; and third, that conscription of men normalizes violence by men as socially acceptable.[100][101] Feminists have been organizers and participants in resistance to conscription in several countries.[102][103][104][105]
Conscription has also been criticized on the ground that, historically, only men have been subjected to conscription.[93][106][107][108][109] Men who opt out or are deemed unfit for military service must often perform alternative service, such asZivildienst inAustria,Germany andSwitzerland, or pay extra taxes,[110] whereas women do not have these obligations. In the US, men who do not register with the Selective Service cannot apply for citizenship, receive federal financial aid, grants or loans, be employed by the federal government, be admitted to public colleges or universities, or, in some states, obtain a driver's license.[111][112]
ManyAmerican libertarians oppose conscription and call for the abolition of theSelective Service System, arguing thatimpressment of individuals into the armed forces amounts toinvoluntary servitude.[113] For example,Ron Paul, a former U.S.Libertarian Party presidential nominee, has said that conscription "is wrongly associated withpatriotism, when it really represents slavery and involuntary servitude".[114] The philosopherAyn Rand opposed conscription, opining that "of all the statist violations of individual rights in a mixed economy, the military draft is the worst. It is an abrogation of rights. It negates man's fundamental right—the right to life—and establishes the fundamental principle ofstatism: that a man's life belongs to the state, and the state may claim it by compelling him to sacrifice it in battle."[115]
In 1917, a number of radicals[who?] and anarchists, includingEmma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a violation of theThirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. However, theSupreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the case ofArver v. United States on 7 January 1918, on the ground that theConstitution givesCongress the power todeclare war and to raise and support armies. The Court also relied on the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens. "It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government in its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need and the right to compel."[116]
It can be argued that in acost-to-benefit ratio, conscription during peacetime is not worthwhile.[117] Months or years of service performed by the most fit and capable subtract from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit; if there ever was a war then conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in any case there is little threat of a war in most countries with conscription. In the United States, every male resident is required by law to register with theSelective Service System within 30 days following his 18th birthday and be available for a draft; this is often accomplished automatically by a motor vehicle department during licensing or by voter registration.[118]
According toMilton Friedman the cost of conscription can be related to theparable of the broken window in anti-draft arguments. The cost of the work, military service, does not disappear even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted, as an unwilling workforce is extremely inefficient. The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity lost, but professionally skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in the civilian workforce. Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military. This may be less a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is generally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another. However, this is potentially more costly in apost-industrial society where educational levels are high and where the workforce is sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even more dire economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity are lost.[119]
Classical republicans promoted conscription as a tool for maintainingcivilian control of the military, thereby preventing usurpation by a select class ofwarriors ormercenaries.Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies since he believed that it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and that it was a mark of moral decline to leave the business to professionals. He based his belief upon the development of theRoman Republic, which came to an end at the same time as theRoman Army changed from a conscript to a professional force.[120] Similarly,Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state.[121]Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for political regimes to enlist their own subjects in the army throughout his works, such asThe Prince andThe Discourses on Livy, among his other writings.[122]
Other proponents, such asWilliam James, consider both mandatory military andnational service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults.[123] Some proponents, such asJonathan Alter andMickey Kaus, support a draft in order to reinforce social equality, create social consciousness, break down class divisions and allow young adults to immerse themselves in public enterprise.[124][125][126] This justification forms the basis of Israel'sPeople's Army Model.Charles Rangel called for the reinstatement of the draft during theIraq War not because he seriously expected it to be adopted but to stress how the socioeconomic restratification meant that very few children of upper-class Americans served in the all-volunteer American armed forces.[127]
It is estimated by theBritish military that in a professional military, a company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed.[128]
Under thetotal defense doctrine, conscription paired with periodicrefresher training ensures that the entire able-bodied population of a country can be mobilized to defend against invasion orassist civil authorities during emergencies. For this reason, some European countries havereintroduced or debated reintroducing conscription during the onset of theRussian invasion of Ukraine.
Military Keynesians often argue for conscription as ajob guarantee. For example, it was more financially beneficial for less-educated young Portuguese men born in 1967 to participate in conscription than to participate in the highly competitive job market with men of the same age who continued to higher education.[129]
Selective conscription for men, women may volunteer
No data, no military, or no women allowed.
Norwegian woman soldier.Norway became, in 2015, the firstNATO member to have a legally compulsory national service for both men and women, and the first country in the world to draft women on the same formal terms as men.Female Israeli soldiers
Throughout history, women have only been conscripted to join armed forces in a few countries, in contrast to the universal practice of conscription from among the male population. The traditional view has been that military service is atest of manhood and arite of passage from boyhood into manhood.[130][131] In recent years, this position has been challenged on the basis that it violatesgender equality, and some countries, have extended conscription obligations to women.
Norway introduced female conscription in 2015, making it the firstNATO member to have a legally compulsory national service for both men and women,[133] and the first country in the world to draft women on the same formal terms as men.[134] In practice only motivated volunteers are selected to join the army in Norway.[135]
Sweden introduced female conscription in 2010, but it was not activated until 2017. This made Sweden the second nation in Europe to draft women, and the second in the world (after Norway) to draft women on the same formal terms as men.[136]
Denmark has extended conscription to women from 2027 but then brought forward military service to 2025, also on a gender-neutral model.[137][138][139][140]
Israel has universal female conscription, and are having similar percantage of conscription to male one's. since the founding of the idf, female conscription was implemanted, but was limited to mostly non combative roles. since 2000, more diverse role were opened for women, and 92% of the roles are opened for them.[141][142][143][144]
InChina, military law allows for the conscription of men and women, but in practice people serving are volunteers, given that China's large population (of over a billion) permits meeting its military targets with volunteers. Nevertheless, provinces reserve their right to conscript people, if their quotas are not met by volunteers.[145][146]
Sudanese law allows for conscription of women, but this is not implemented in practice.[147]
In theUnited Kingdom during World War II, beginning in 1941, women were brought into the scope of conscription but, as all women with dependent children were exempt and many women were informally left in occupations such as nursing or teaching, the number conscripted was relatively few.[148] Most women who were conscripted were sent to the factories, although some were part of theAuxiliary Territorial Service (ATS),Women's Land Army, and other women's services. None were assigned to combat roles unless they volunteered.[149] In contemporary United Kingdom, in July 2016, all exclusions on women serving in Ground Close Combat (GCC) roles were lifted.[150]
In theSoviet Union, there was never conscription of women for thearmed forces, but the severe disruption of normal life and the high proportion of civilians affected byWorld War II after the German invasion attracted many volunteers for "The Great Patriotic War".[151] Medical doctors of both sexes could and would be conscripted (as officers). Also, the Soviet university education system required Department of Chemistry students of both sexes to complete anROTC course inNBC defense, and such female reservist officers could be conscripted in times of war.
In 1981 in theUnited States, several men filed lawsuit in the caseRostker v. Goldberg, alleging that theSelective Service Act of 1948 violates theDue Process Clause of theFifth Amendment by requiring that only men register with theSelective Service System (SSS). TheSupreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'"[154] In 2013, JudgeGray H. Miller of theUnited States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that the Service's men-only requirement was unconstitutional, as while at the timeRostker was decided, women were banned from serving in combat, the situation had since changed with the 2013 and 2015 restriction removals.[155] Miller's opinion was reversed by theFifth Circuit, stating that only the Supreme Court could overturn the Supreme Court precedence fromRostker. The Supreme Court considered but declined to review the Fifth Circuit's ruling in June 2021.[156] In an opinion authored by JusticeSonia Sotomayor and joined by JusticesStephen Breyer andBrett Kavanaugh, the three justices agreed that the male-only draft was likely unconstitutional given the changes in the military's stance on the roles, but because Congress had been reviewing and evaluating legislation to eliminate its male-only draft requirement via the National Commission on Military, National, and Public Service (NCMNPS) since 2016, it would have been inappropriate for the Court to act at that time.[157]
On 1 October 1999, inTaiwan, theJudicial Yuan of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490 considered that the physical differences between males and females and the derived role differentiation in their respective social functions and lives would not make drafting only males a violation of theConstitution of the Republic of China.[158][(see discussion) verification needed] Though women are not conscripted in Taiwan,transsexual persons are exempt.[159]
In 2018, theNetherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex.[160]France andPortugal, where conscription was abolished, extended their symbolic, mandatory day of information on the armed forces for young people - calledDefence and Citizenship Day in France and Day of National Defence in Portugal – to women in 1997 and 2008, respectively; at the same time, the military registry of both countries and obligation of military service in case of war was extended to women.[161][162]
Military authorities generally considerautistic individuals unfit for service, whileneurodiversity advocates argue that they can be well-suited for military roles.[163]
Sweden: Sweden's military excluded people withautism andADHD. While they have since made it possible for people with mild ADHD to enlist if they meet specific criteria, autistic individuals remain excluded. This has led to several lawsuits from neurodiversity advocates, arguing that the policy is discriminatory. Erik Fenn, an autistic man who was initially denied service but won a discrimination lawsuit in 2024, leading to his conscription eligibility.[164]
Denmark: Denmark classifies individuals with autism as "unfit for military service," and they are consequently excluded from conscription. An exception is made for those withAsperger's syndrome, but even they must prove a "just cause" for military service to be allowed to serve.[165]
Norway: In Norway, autism is listed in a questionnaire alongside conditions like Down syndrome. This can result in even those with mild autism being deemed unfit for military service and excluded.[166]
Israel: Israel generally exempts autistic people from military service, but they have been allowed to volunteer since 2008. Programs like "Titkadmu" and "Ro'im Rachok" support and encourage autistic individuals to volunteer for military roles.[167]
Finland: Finland's policy has shifted over time. While autistic men were once routinely exempted from conscription, the military started including them as eligible candidates in the 2010s. According to a 2019 Finnish military news report, Finnish citizens with autism are subject to conscription.[168]
Ukraine: In Ukraine, individuals with a moderate autism spectrum disorder are considered eligible for conscription. However, they are assigned to non-combat roles rather than serving on the front line.[169]
South Korea: South Korea classifies individuals with autism as Grade 4, which exempts them from active-duty service but still requires them to perform reserve duty. Before 2018, most autistic individuals were required to serve on active duty.[170]
Turkey: In Turkey, autistic people are officially exempt from conscription, but in practice, they may be suspected of draft evasion. Families often face difficult administrative procedures and multiple medical examinations to prove their diagnosis.[171]
Aconscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible withmilitary service, or, more often, with any role in the armed forces.[172][173] In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the weapons-freecivil defense.[174][175]
The reasons for refusing to serve in the military are varied. Some people are conscientious objectors for religious reasons. In particular, the members of the historicpeace churches arepacifist by doctrine, andJehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed forces on the ground that they believe that Christians should be neutral in international conflicts.[176]
Yes, but almost all recruits have been volunteers in recent years.[186] (Alternative service is cited in Brazilian law,[187] but a system has not been implemented.)[186]
No. Legislative provision making all men of military age aReserve Militia member was removed in 1904.[189] Conscription into a full-time military service took place in both world wars, with 1945 being the last year conscription was practiced.[190]
No, however Male citizens 18 years of age and over are required to register for military service inPeople's Liberation Army recruiting offices (registration exempted for residents of Hong Kong and Macao special administrative regions).[191][192][193][194]
No (suspended during peacetime in 2001).[201] A voluntary national service (Service national universel, with the option of military or civil service for men and women) was instituted in 2021.
No (But the Jordan Government say that men without works or aren´t studying should do mandatory military service , also there are plans to reintroduce the conscription (for men) in 2026 , but it´s not certain if it will be reintroduced at this moment)
No.[214]Malaysian National Service was suspended from January 2015 due to government budget cuts.[215] It resumed in 2016, then was abolished in 2018. However, in 2023 the government announced its revival pending approval in 2024. National Service Malaysia resumed again in January 2025 for supervised trial trainingMalaysian Armed Forces with collaboration various government agencies for the nationhood module.
No. However, under Nigeria's National Youths Service Corps Act, graduates from tertiary institutions are required to undertake national service for a year. The service begins with a 3-week military training.
Yes by law, but in practice people are not forced to serve against their will.[135] Conscientious objectors have not been prosecuted since 2011; they are simply exempted from service.[224]
No. Peacetime conscription abolished in 2004, but there remains a symbolic military obligation for all 18-year-olds, of both sexes: National Defense Day (Dia da Defesa Nacional).[231]
Yes (alternative service available).[245] According to the Defence Minister, from 2018 there will be no compulsory enrollment for military service;[246] however, all men born after 1995 will be subject to four months of compulsory military training, increasing to one full year after 2024 (for men born after 2005).[247]
Yes, but can be exempted if three years ofTerritorial Defense Student training are completed. Students who start but do not complete aRor Dor course in high school are still permitted to continue coursework for two more years at a university. Otherwise, they face training or must draw a conscription lottery "black card". The government intends to abolish these rules in 2027.[248]
Every male citizen of theRepublic of Austria from the age of 17 up to 50, specialists up to 65 years is liable to military service. However, besides mobilization, conscription calls to a six-month long basic military training in theBundesheer can be done up to the age of 35. For men refusing to undergo this training, a nine-month lastingcommunity service is mandatory.
Belgium abolished the conscription in 1994. The last conscripts left active service in February 1995. To this day (2019), a small minority of the Belgian citizens supports the idea of reintroducing military conscription, for both men and women.
Bulgaria had conscription for males above 18 until it was ended in 2008.[256] Due to a shortfall in the army of some 5,500 soldiers,[257] parts of the former ruling coalition have expressed their support for the return of conscription, most notablyKrasimir Karakachanov. Opposition towards this idea from the main coalition partner,GERB, saw a compromise in 2018, where instead of conscription, Bulgaria could have possibly introduced a voluntary military service by 2019 where young citizens can volunteer for a period of 6 to 9 months, receiving a basic wage. However, this has not gone forward.[258]
Since the signing of the Peace Accord in 1993, there has been no official conscription inCambodia. Also the National Assembly has repeatedly rejected to reintroduce it due to popular resentment.[259] However, in November 2006, it was reintroduced. Although mandatory for all males between the ages of 18 and 30 (with some sources stating up to age 35), less than 20% of those in the age group are recruited amidst a downsizing of the armed forces.[260]
Compulsory service in a sedentary militia was practiced in Canada as early as 1669. In peacetime, compulsory service was typically limited to attending an annual muster, although theCanadian militia was mobilized for longer periods during wartime. Compulsory service in the sedentary militia continued until the early 1880s when Canada's sedentary Reserve Militia system fell into disuse. The legislative provision that formally made every male inhabitant aged 16 to 60 member of the Reserve Militia was removed in 1904, replaced with provisions that made them theoretically "liable to serve in the militia".[261]
Conscription into a full-time military service had only been instituted twice by the government of Canada, during both world wars. Conscription into theCanadian Expeditionary Force was practiced in the last year of the First World War in 1918. During the Second World War, conscription for home defence was introduced in 1940 and for overseas service in 1944. Conscription has not been practiced in Canada since the end of the Second World War in 1945.[262]
Aterracotta soldier with his horse, China, 210–209 BC
Universalconscription in China dates back to the State ofQin, which eventually became the Qin Empire of 221 BC. Following unification, historical records show that a total of 300,000 conscript soldiers and 500,000 conscript labourers constructed theGreat Wall of China.[263] In the following dynasties, universal conscription was abolished and reintroduced on numerous occasions.
As of 2011[update],[264] universal military conscription is theoretically mandatory inChina, and reinforced by law. However, due to the large population of China and large pool of candidates available for recruitment, thePeople's Liberation Army has always had sufficient volunteers, so conscription has not been required in practice.[265][192][193][266]
Military service in Cyprus has a deep rooted history entangled with theCyprus problem.[267] Military service in theCypriot National Guard is mandatory for all male citizens of the Republic of Cyprus, as well as any male non-citizens born of a parent ofGreek Cypriot descent, lasting from the 1 January of the year in which they turn 18 years of age to 31 December, of the year in which they turn 50.[268][269] All male residents of Cyprus who are of military age (16 and over) are required to obtain anexit visa from theMinistry of Defense.[270] Currently, military conscription in Cyprus lasts up to 14 months.
Conscription is known in Denmark since theViking Age, where one man out of every 10 had to serve the king.Frederick IV of Denmark changed the law in 1710 to every 4th man. The men were chosen by the landowner and it was seen as a penalty.
Since 12 February 1849, every physically fit man must do military service. According to §81 in theConstitution of Denmark, which was promulgated in 1849:
Every male person able to carry arms shall be liable with his person to contribute to the defence of his country under such rules as are laid down by Statute.— Constitution of Denmark[271]
The legislation about compulsory military service is articulated in the Danish Law of Conscription.[272] National service takes 4–12 months.[273] It is possible to postpone the duty when one is still in full-time education.[274] Every male turning 18 will be drafted to the 'Day of Defence', where they will be introduced to the Danish military and their health will be tested.[275] Physically unfit persons are not required to do military service.[273][276] It is only compulsory for men, while women are free to choose to join the Danish army.[277] Almost all of the men have been volunteers in recent years,[278] 96.9% of the total number of recruits having been volunteers in the 2015 draft.[279]
After lottery,[280] one can become a conscientious objector.[281] Total objection (refusal from alternative civilian service) results in up to 4 months jailtime according to the law.[282] However, in 2014 a Danish man, who signed up for the service and objected later, got only 14 days of home arrest.[283]
Conscription in Eritrea requires every able bodied man and woman to serve, ostensibly, for 18 months. In this time, they receive six months ofmilitary training and the rest of their time is spent working on national reconstruction projects. This program allegedly aims to compensate forEritrea's lack of capital and to reduce dependence onforeign aid.[284] This is outlined in both theConstitution of Eritrea, as well as Proclamation 82 issued by theNational Assembly in October 1995.[285] However, the period of enrollment may be extended during times of national crisis, and in practice, the typical period of national service is considerably longer than the minimum. Since the 1990s, conscription has been effectively open-ended; this draft policy has been likened to "slavery" and has earned international condemnation.[286][287][288]
Estonia adopted a policy ofajateenistus (literally "time service") in late 1991, having inherited the concept fromSoviet legislature. According to §124 of the1992 constitution, "Estonian citizens have a duty to participate in national defence on the bases and pursuant to a procedure provided by a law",[289] which in practice means that men aged 18–27 are subject to the draft.[290]
In the formative years, conscripts had to serve an 18-month term. An amendment passed in 1994 shortened this to 12 months. Further revisions in 2003 established an eleven-month term for draftees trained as NCOs and drivers, and an eight-month term for rank & file. Under the current system, the yearly draft is divided into three "waves" – separate batches of eleven-month conscripts start their service in January and July while those selected for an eight-month term are brought in on October.[291] An estimated 3200 people go through conscript service every year.
From 2013, women have been able to voluntarily join the conscription under the same conditions as men, the only difference being the norms of the general fitness tests and a 90-day window during which women can leave the service.[292]
Conscripts serve in all branches of theEstonian Defence Forces except theair force which only relies on paid professionals due to its highly technical nature and security concerns. Historically, draftees could also be assigned to theborder guard (before it switched to an all-volunteer model in 2000),a special rapid response unit of thepolice force (disbanded in 1997) or three militarized rescue companies within theEstonian Rescue Board (disbanded in 2004).
Conscription can take the form of military or of civilian service. According to 2021 data, 65%[293] of Finnish males entered and finished the military service. The number of female volunteers to annually enter armed service had stabilised at approximately 300.[294] The service period is 165, 255 or 347 days for the rank and file conscripts and 347 days for conscripts trained asNCOs or reserve officers. The length of civilian service is always twelve months. Those electing to serve unarmed in duties where unarmed service is possible serve either nine or twelve months, depending on their training.[295][296]
Any Finnish male citizen who refuses to perform both military and civilian service faces a penalty of 173 days in prison, minus any served days. Such sentences are usually served fully in prison, with noparole.[297][298] Jehovah's Witnesses are no longer exempted from service as of 27 February 2019.[299] The inhabitants of demilitarizedÅland are exempt from military service. By the Conscription Act of 1951, they are, however, required to serve a time at a local institution, like the coast guard. However, until such service has been arranged, they are freed from service obligation. The non-military service of Åland has not been arranged since the introduction of the act, and there are no plans to institute it. The inhabitants of Åland can also volunteer for military service on the mainland. As of 1995, womenare permitted to serve on a voluntary basis and pursue careers in the military after their initial voluntary military service.
The military service takes place inFinnish Defence Forces or in theFinnish Border Guard. All services of the Finnish Defence Forces train conscripts. However, the Border Guard trains conscripts only in land-based units, not in coast guard detachments or in the Border Guard Air Wing. Civilian service may take place in the Civilian Service Center inLapinjärvi or in an accepted non-profit organization of educational, social or medical nature.
Between 1956 and 2011 conscription was mandatory for all male citizens in the Germanfederal armed forces (German:Bundeswehr), as well as for theFederal Border Guard (Bundesgrenzschutz) in the 1970s (seeBorder Guard Service). With the end of theCold War theGerman government drastically reduced the size of its armed forces. The low demand for conscripts led to the suspension of compulsory conscription in 2011. Since then, only volunteer professionals serve in theBundeswehr.
In 2025, Germany began steps towards potentially reintroducing conscription, which had been suspended in 2011. The new policy included compulsory questionnaires for 18-year-old men. Extending the conscription system to women, which is discussed, would require a constitutional change. The government aimes to raise troop numbers to meet NATO commitments, including plans for an additional 100,000 personnel by 2029.[300]However, Defense Minister Boris Pistorius explained that, for the time being, mandatory conscription would not return "in the immediate future."[301]
Since 1914Greece has been enforcing mandatorymilitary service, currently lasting 9 months (but historically up to 36 months) for all adult men. Citizens discharged from active service are normally placed in the reserve and are subject to periodic recalls of 1–10 days at irregular intervals.[302]
Universal conscription was introduced in Greece during the military reforms of 1909, although various forms of selective conscription had been in place earlier. In more recent years, conscription was associated with the state of general mobilisation declared on 20 July 1974, due to the crisis inCyprus (the mobilisation was formally ended on 18 December 2002).
The duration of military service has historically ranged between 9 and 36 months depending on various factors either particular to the conscript or the political situation in the Eastern Mediterranean. Although women are employed by the Greek army as officers and soldiers, they are not obliged to enlist. Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they are provided with medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs.
Greece enforces conscription for all male citizens aged between 19 and 45. In August 2009, duration of the mandatory service was reduced from 12 months as it was before to 9 months for the army, but remained at 12 months for the navy and the air force. The number of conscripts allocated to the latter two has been greatly reduced aiming at full professionalization. Nevertheless, mandatory military service at the army was once again raised to 12 months in March 2021, unless served in units in Evros or the North Aegean islands where duration was kept at 9 months. Although full professionalization is under consideration, severe financial difficulties and mismanagement, including delays and reduced rates in the hiring of professional soldiers, as well as widespread abuse of the deferment process, has resulted in the postponement of such a plan.
Assembling and disassembling gun parts by Iranian soldiers with closed eyes.
InIran, all men who reach the age of 18 must do about two years of compulsory military service in theIR police department orIranian army orIslamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.[303] Before the1979 revolution, women could serve in the military.[304] However, after the establishment of the Islamic Republic, some Ayatollahs considered women's military service to be disrespectful to women by thePahlavi government and banned women's military service in Iran.[305] Therefore, Iranian women and girls were completely exempted from military service, which caused Iranian men and boys to oppose.[306]
In Iran, men who refuse to go to military service are deprived of their citizenship rights, such as employment,health insurance,[307] continuing their education at university,[308] finding a job, going abroad, opening a bank account,[309] etc.[310] Iranian men have so far opposed mandatory military service and demanded that military service in Iran become a job like in other countries, but the Islamic Republic is opposed to this demand.[303] Some Iranian military commanders consider the elimination of conscription or improving the condition of soldiers as a security issue and one ofAli Khamenei's powers as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces,[303][311] so they treat it with caution.[312] In Iran, usually wealthy people are exempted from conscription.[313][314] Some other men can be exempted from conscription due to their fathers serving in theIran-Iraq war.[315][316]
There is a mandatory military service for all men and women inIsrael who are fit and 18 years old. Men must serve 32 months while women serve 24 months, with the vast majority of conscripts being Jewish.
Some Israeli citizens are exempt from mandatory service:
Non-Jewish Arab citizens
Permanent residents (non-civilian) such as theDruze of the Golan Heights
Male Ultra-Orthodox Jews can apply for deferment to study inYeshiva and the deferment tends to become an exemption, although some do opt to serve in the military
Female religious Jews, as long as they declare they are unable to serve due to religious grounds. Most of whom opt for the alternative of volunteering in the national serviceSherut Leumi
All of the exempt above are eligible to volunteer to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), as long as they declare so.
MaleDruze and maleCircassian Israeli citizens are liable for conscription, in accordance with agreement set by their community leaders (their community leaders however signed a clause in which all female Druze and female Circassian are exempt from service).
A few maleBedouin Israeli citizens choose to enlist to the Israeli military in every draft (despite their Muslim-Arab background that exempt them from conscription).
Lithuania abolished its conscription in 2008.[317] In May 2015, the Lithuanian parliament voted to reintroduce conscription and the conscripts started their training in August 2015.[318] From 2015 to 2017 there were enough volunteers to avoid drafting civilians.[319]
Moldova has a 12-month conscription for all males between 18 and 27 years. However, a citizen who completed a military training course at amilitary department is exempted from conscription.[320]
Conscription, which was called "Service Duty" (Dutch:dienstplicht) in theNetherlands, was first employed in 1810 by French occupying forces.Napoleon's brotherLouis Bonaparte, who wasKing of Holland from 1806 to 1810, had tried to introduce conscription a few years earlier, unsuccessfully. Every man aged 20 years or older had to enlist. By means of drawing lots it was decided who had to undertake service in the French army. It was possible to arrange a substitute against payment.
Later on, conscription was used for all men over the age of 18. Postponement was possible, due to study, for example. Conscientious objectors could perform an alternative civilian service instead of military service. For various reasons, this forced military service was criticized at the end of the twentieth century. Since the Cold War was over, so was the direct threat of a war. Instead, the Dutch army was employed in more and more peacekeeping operations. The complexity and danger of these missions made the use of conscripts controversial. Furthermore, the conscription system was thought to be unfair as only men were drafted.
In the European part of Netherlands, compulsory attendance has been officially suspended since 1 May 1997.[321] Between 1991 and 1996, the Dutch armed forces phased out their conscript personnel and converted to an all-professional force. The last conscript troops were inducted in 1995, and demobilized in 1996.[321] The suspension means that citizens are no longer forced to serve in the armed forces, as long as it is not required for the safety of the country. Since then, the Dutch army has become an all-professional force. However, to this day, every male and – from January 2020 onward – female[322] citizen aged 17 gets a letter in which they are told that they have been registered but do not have to present themselves for service.[323]
Conscription was constitutionally established the 12 April 1907 withKongeriket Norges Grunnlov § 119..[324] As of March 2016[update],Norway currently employs a weak form of mandatory military service for men and women. In practice recruits are not forced to serve, instead only those who are motivated are selected.[325] About 60,000 Norwegians are available for conscription every year, but only 8,000 to 10,000 are conscripted.[326] Since 1985, women have been able to enlist for voluntary service as regular recruits. On 14 June 2013 theNorwegian Parliament voted to extend conscription to women, resulting in universal conscription in effect from 2015.[133] This made Norway the firstNATO member and first European country to make national service compulsory for both sexes.[327] In earlier times, up until at least the early 2000s, all men aged 19–44 were subject to mandatory service, with good reasons required to avoid becoming drafted. There is a right ofconscientious objection. As of 2020 Norway did not reach genderequity in conscription with only 33% of all conscripted being women.[328]
In addition to the military service, the Norwegian government draft a total of 8,000[329] men and women between 18 and 55 to non-militaryCivil defence duty.[330] (Not to be confused withAlternative civilian service.) Former service in the military does not exclude anyone from later being drafted to the Civil defence, but an upper limit of total 19 months of service applies.[331] Neglecting mobilisation orders to training exercises and actual incidents, may impose fines.[332]
As of 1 January 2011[update],Serbia no longer practises mandatory military service. Prior to this, mandatory military service lasted 6 months for men.Conscientious objectors could however opt for 9 months ofcivil service instead.
On 15 December 2010, theParliament of Serbia voted to suspend mandatory military service. The decision fully came into force on 1 January 2011.[333]
In September 2024, Prime MinisterMiloš Vučević announced that conscription will return in September 2025 with the mandatory military service lasting 75 days.[234] Civil service will still be possible as an alternative.[334]
There was mandatory military conscription for all white men in South Africa from 1968 until the end ofapartheid in 1994.[335] Under South African defense law, young white men had to undergo two years' continuous military training after they leave school, after which they had to serve 720 days in occasional military duty over the next 12 years.[336] TheEnd Conscription Campaign began in 1983 in opposition to the requirement. In the same year theNational Party government announced plans to extend conscription to white immigrants in the country.[336]
Sweden had conscription (Swedish:värnplikt) for men between 1901 and 2010. During the last few decades it was selective.[337] Since 1980, women have been allowed to sign up by choice, and, if passing the tests, do military training together with male conscripts. Since 1989 women have been allowed to serve in all military positions and units, including combat.[136]
In 2010, conscription was made gender-neutral, meaning both women and men would be conscripted on equal terms. The conscription system was simultaneously deactivated in peacetime.[136] Seven years later, referencing increased military threat, the Swedish Government reactivated military conscription. Beginning in 2018, both men and women are conscripted.[136]
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), maintains an active conscription system. All qualified male citizens of military age are now obligated to receive 4-month of military training. In December 2022, PresidentTsai Ing-wen led the government to announce the reinstatement of the mandatory 1-year active duty military service from January 2024.[338]
TheUnited Kingdom introduced conscription to full-time military service for the first time in January 1916 (the eighteenth month ofWorld War I) and abolished it in 1920.Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom, was exempted from the original 1916 military service legislation, and although further legislation in 1918 gave power for an extension of conscription to Ireland, the power was never put into effect.
Conscription was reintroduced in 1939, in the lead up toWorld War II, and continued in force until 1963.Northern Ireland was exempted from conscription legislation throughout the whole period.
In all, eight million men were conscripted during both World Wars, as well as several hundred thousand younger single women.[339] The introduction of conscription in May 1939, before the war began, was partly due to pressure from the French, who emphasized the need for a large British army to oppose the Germans.[340] From early 1942 unmarried women age 20–30 were conscripted (unmarried women who had dependent children aged 14 or younger, including those who had illegitimate children or were widows with children were excluded). Most women who were conscripted were sent to the factories, but they could volunteer for theAuxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) and other women's services. Some women served in theWomen's Land Army: initially volunteers but later conscription was introduced. However, women who were already working in a skilled job considered helpful to the war effort, such as aGeneral Post Office telephonist, were told to continue working as before. None was assigned to combat roles unless she volunteered. By 1943 women were liable to some form of directed labour up to age 51. During the Second World War, 1.4 million British men volunteered for service and 3.2 million were conscripted. Conscripts comprised 50% of theRoyal Air Force, 60% of theRoyal Navy and 80% of theBritish Army.[149]
The abolition of conscription in Britain was announced on 4 April 1957, by new prime ministerHarold Macmillan, with the last conscripts being recruited three years later.[341]
Conscription in theUnited States ended in 1973, but males aged between 18 and 25 are required to register with theSelective Service System to enable a reintroduction of conscription if necessary.PresidentGerald Ford had suspended mandatory draft registration in 1975, but PresidentJimmy Carter reinstated that requirement when theSoviet Union intervened in Afghanistan five years later. Consequently, Selective Service registration is still required of almost all young men.[342] There have been no prosecutions for violations of the draft registration law since 1986.[343] Males between the ages of 17 and 45, and female members of theUS National Guard may be conscripted for federal militia service pursuant to 10 U.S. Code § 246 and theMilitia Clauses of theUnited States Constitution.[344]
In February 2019, the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that male-only conscription registration breached the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause. InNational Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System, a case brought by a non-profit men's rights organization theNational Coalition for Men against the U.S. Selective Service System, judgeGray H. Miller issued a declaratory judgment that the male-only registration requirement is unconstitutional, though did not specify what action the government should take.[345] That ruling was reversed by the Fifth Circuit. In June 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the decision by the Court of Appeals.
^abAsal, Victor; Conrad, Justin; Toronto, Nathan (2017-08-01). "I Want You! The Determinants of Military Conscription".Journal of Conflict Resolution.61 (7):1456–1481.doi:10.1177/0022002715606217.ISSN0022-0027.S2CID9019768.
^abcdefghijkLevanoni, Amalia (2010). "Part II: Egypt and Syria (Eleventh Century Until the Ottoman Conquest) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries.Cambridge and New York City:Cambridge University Press. pp. 237–284.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010.ISBN978-1-139-05615-1.The Arabic termmamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for theWhiteTurkishslaves ofPagan origins, purchased from Central Asia and theEurasian steppes byMuslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in themedieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before themin Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of theAyyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–49).
^abcdefghijklm"Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks".The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide. Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332–334.Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved1 March 2021.The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arabslaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the wordmamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing invarious Muslim societies, particularlyin Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as theMamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was along history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by theAbbasid rulers ofBaghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including theFatimids andAyyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now IslamicCairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of theCaucasus and Central Asia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have beenTurkic (mainlyKipchak andCuman) orfrom the Caucasus (predominantlyCircassian, but alsoArmenian andGeorgian). The Mamlukswere recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlikemercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and itsCitadel. Herethey would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly onhorsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of theEuropean knights'Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known asFurusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel andRhoda Island, also in Cairo.
^abFreamon, Bernard K. (2019). "The 'Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon' – Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines". In Freamon, Bernard K. (ed.).Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. Studies in Global Slavery. Vol. 8.Leiden:Brill Publishers. pp. 219–244.doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006.ISBN978-90-04-36481-3.S2CID191690007.Ibn Khaldun argued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the laterAbbasid Caliphate, providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression ofMuslim thinking on slavery since theearly days of Islam. Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mindHegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.
^abcdefghijklmnoStowasser, Karl (1984). "Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court".Muqarnas.2 (The Art of the Mamluks).Leiden:Brill Publishers:13–20.doi:10.2307/1523052.ISSN0732-2992.JSTOR1523052.S2CID191377149.The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending fromLibya to theEuphrates, fromCilicia to theArabian Sea and theSudan, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of theEastern Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean – champions ofSunni orthodoxy, guardians ofIslam's holy places, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by theMongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of thePtolemies. [...] They ruled as a militaryaristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of thesultan himself or of one of the Mamlukemirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became theawlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamlukḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually:Qipchaq,Azeris,Uzbec Turks,Mongols,Avars,Circassians,Georgians,Armenians,Greeks,Bulgars,Albanians,Serbs,Hungarians.
^А.Ш.Кадырбаев, Сайф-ад-Дин Хайр-Бек – абхазский "король эмиров" Мамлюкского Египта (1517–1522), "Материалы первой международной научной конференции, посвященной 65-летию В.Г.Ардзинба". Сухум: АбИГИ, 2011, pp. 87–95
^Thomas Philipp, Ulrich Haarmann (eds),The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 115–116.
^Jane Hathaway,The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt: The Rise of the Qazdaglis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 103–104.
^"Relations of the Georgian Mamluks of Egypt with Their Homeland in the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century". Daniel Crecelius and Gotcha Djaparidze.Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 45, No. 3 (2002), pp. 320–341.ISSN0022-4995
^Hathaway, Jane (February 1995). "The Military Household in Ottoman Egypt".International Journal of Middle East Studies.27 (1):39–52.doi:10.1017/s0020743800061572.S2CID62834455.
^abcdefghiGlassé, Cyril, ed. (2008)."Devşirme".The New Encyclopedia of Islam (3rd ed.).Lanham, Maryland:Rowman & Littlefield. p. 115.ISBN978-1-4422-2348-6.Devshirme. Theconscription system used by theOttomans. It consisted of taking male children fromsubjectChristian populations, chiefly in theBalkans,forcibly converting them to Islam, and raising them to join the ranks of an elite military corps, the Janissaries, or to enterother branches of government service. Theboy-levy (devshirme) was carried out largely by force, but to be taken by it held out such promise of a brilliant future that Ottomans sometimes tried to slip their own children into it.Many of the Viziers came from the higher levels of the pageboy training. At first every fifth boy was drafted in a levy carried out every four or five years, but later every able-bodied boy between the ages of ten and fifteen was liable to be taken in a draft carried out annually. Thedevshirme system became obsolete in the 17th century.
^Joseph von Hammer, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches
^John V. A. Fine Jr., When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans: A Study of Identity in Pre-Nationalist Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia in the Medieval and Early-Modern Periods
^Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Volume I
^Inalcik, Halil (1979)."Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire". In A. Ascher, B. K. Kiraly; T. Halasi-Kun (eds.).The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern. Brooklyn College. sec. In the Service of the State and Military Class. Archived fromthe original on 4 May 2017.
^Basgoz, I. & Wilson, H. E. (1989), The educational tradition of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the Turkish educational system of the republican era. Turkish Review 3(16), 15
^Krivosheev, G. F.,Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование [Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study] (in Russian).
^Stephen Blake Boyd; W. Merle Longwood; Mark William Muesse, eds. (1996).Redeeming men: religion and masculinities.Westminster John Knox Press. p. 17.ISBN978-0-664-25544-2.In contradistinction to profeminism, however, the men's rights perspective addresses specific legal and cultural factors that put men at a disadvantage. The movement is made up of a variety of formal and informal groups that differ in their approaches and issues; Men's rights advocates, for example, target sex-specific military conscription and judicial practices that discriminate against men in child custody cases.
^abJeremy A. Crang, "'Come into the Army, Maud': Women, Military Conscription, and the Markham Inquiry",Defence Studies, November 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, pp. 381,–95; statistics from pp. 392–93
^Kalisch, PA; Kalisch PA; Kalisch BJ (1973). "The women's draft. An analysis of the controversy over the nurses' Selective Service Bill of 1945".Nursing Research.22 (5):402–413.doi:10.1097/00006199-197309000-00004.PMID4580476.
^ab"Nationmaster: Conscription". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland, 1997. Data collected from the nations concerned, or as otherwise indicated.
^Granatstein, J. I.; Jones, Richard; de Bruin, Tabitha; McIntosh, Andrew (29 June 2022)."Conscription in Canada". Retrieved15 July 2024.
^"Country report and updates: China".War Resisters' International. 15 March 1998.All male citizens must register at the local PLA office in the year they reach the age of 18. Local governments get annual recruitment quotas, and local PLA offices select recruits according to medical and political criteria and military requirements. Call-up for military service then takes place at the age of 18.
^Conscription still exists, but compulsory attendance was held in abeyance on 1 January 1997 (effective from 22 August 1996),(unknown) (October 12, 1999)."Afschaffing dienstplicht". Tweede Kamer (Dutch House of Representatives) and the Koninklijke Bibliotheek (Royal Dutch Library). Archived fromthe original on 2007-08-23. Retrieved2009-07-27.
^Central Intelligence Agency."The World Factbook: Military Service Age and Obligation". Archived fromthe original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved28 February 2016.17–23 years of age (officers 20–24) for voluntary military service; no conscription; applicants must be single male or female Philippine citizens with either 72 college credit hours (enlisted) or a baccalaureate degree (officers) (2013)
^Section 4 Article II of the Philippine constitution reads, "The prime duty of the Government is to serve and protect the people. The Government may call upon the people to defend the State and, in the fulfillment thereof, all citizens may be required, under conditions provided by law, to render personal, military or civil service." Section 4 Article XVI of the Philippine constitution reads, "The Armed Forces of the Philippines shall be composed of a citizen armed force which shall undergo military training and serve as may be provided by law. It shall keep a regular force necessary for the security of the State."[227]
^"Poland's defence minister, Bogdan Klich, said the country will move towards a professional army and that from January, only volunteers will join thearmed forces.",Day, Matthew (5 August 2008)."Poland ends army conscription".telegraph.co.uk. London.Archived from the original on 2022-01-11. Retrieved2009-02-11.
^"Substitute Service Center".Department of Compulsory Military Service, Taipei City Government. Archived fromthe original on March 24, 2007. RetrievedJuly 25, 2008.
^Efthymiou, Stratis Andreas (2019). "Nationalism, Militarism and Masculinity After the Construction of the Border".Nationalism, Militarism and Masculinity in Post-Conflict Cyprus. Springer International. pp. 23–53.doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14702-0_2.ISBN978-3-030-14701-3.S2CID198621467.
^"Άδειες Εξόδου".army.gov.cy. National Guard General Staff. Archived fromthe original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved17 February 2021.όλοι οι Κύπριοι πολίτες, περιλαμβανομένων και των προσώπων που έχουν οποιοδήποτε από τους δύο γονείς κυπριακής καταγωγής, αλλά δεν έχουν καταστεί πολίτες της Δημοκρατίας, ηλικίας 16 μέχρι και 26 ετών, για να τους επιτραπεί η έξοδος από τη χώρα, απαιτείται όπως επιδεικνύουν στα λιμάνια και αεροδρόμια, άδεια εξόδου η οποία εκδίδεται από το Υπουργείο Άμυνας και τα κατά τόπους Στρατολογικά Γραφεία της Εθνικής Φρουράς.
^Roger Broad,Conscription in Britain 1939–1964: The Militarization of a Generation (2006)
^Daniel Hucker, "Franco-British Relations and the Question of Conscription in Britain, 1938–1939",Contemporary European History, November 2008, Vol. 17 Issue 4, pp 437–56
Levi, Margaret (1997).Consent, Dissent and Patriotism. New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-59961-0. Looks at citizens' responses to military conscription in several democracies since the French Revolution.
Linch, Kevin (2012).Conscription. Mainz: Institute of European History (IEG).
Krueger, Christine, and Sonja Levsen, eds.War Volunteering in Modern Times: From the French Revolution to the Second World War (Palgrave Macmillan 2011)
Mjoset, Lars; Van Holde, Stephen, eds. (2002).The Comparative Study of Conscription in the Armed Forces. Amsterdam: JAI Press/Elsevier Science Ltd. p. 424.
Nau, Terry L. (2013). "Chapter 1: Draft Bait".Reluctant Soldier... Proud Veteran: How a cynical Vietnam vet learned to take pride in his service to the USA. Leipzig: Amazon Distribution GmbH. pp. 1–12.ISBN9781482761498.OCLC870660174.
Stevenson, Michael D. (2001).Canada's Greatest Wartime Muddle: National Selective Service and the Mobilization of Human Resources during World War II. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 235.ISBN0-7735-2263-8.
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