Confucius considered himself a transmitter for the values ofearlier periods which he claimed had been abandoned in his time. He advocated forfilial piety, endorsing strong family loyalty,ancestor veneration, and the respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. Confucius recommended a robust family unit as the cornerstone for an ideal government. He championed theSilver Rule, or a negative form of theGolden Rule, advising, "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself."[3]
The time of Confucius's life saw arich diversity of thought, and was a formative period in China's intellectual history. His ideas gained in prominence during theWarring States period, butexperienced setback immediately following theQin conquest. UnderEmperor Wu of Han, Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with affiliated works becoming mandatory readings for career paths leading to officialdom. During theTang andSong dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in the West asNeo-Confucianism. In the 20th century, an intellectual movement emerged inRepublican China that sought to apply Confucian ideology in a modern context, known asNew Confucianism. From ancient dynasties to the modern era, Confucianism has integrated into the Chinese social fabric and way of life.[4]
Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited many of the ancient texts including all of theFive Classics. However, modern scholars exercise caution in attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself, for at least some of the texts and philosophy associated with him were of a more ancient origin.[5]Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in theAnalects, but not until many years after his death.
Name
The name "Confucius" is aLatinized form of theMandarin ChineseKǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子, "Master Kong") that was coined in the late 16th century by earlyJesuit missionaries to China.[6] Confucius'sfamily name was Kong (孔, OC:*kʰˤoŋʔ) and his given name was Qiu (丘, OC:*[k]ʷʰə). Hiscourtesy name, a capping (guan:冠) given athis coming of age ceremony,[7] and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni (仲尼, OC:*N-truŋ-snr[əj]), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family.[6][8]
Life
Early life
It is thought that Confucius was born on 28 September 551 BCE,[9][10] in Zou (陬, in modernQufu,Shandong).[10][11] The area was notionally controlled by thekings ofZhou but effectively independent under the local lords ofLu, who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu. His fatherKong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison.[12]His ancestry traced back through thedukes of Song to theShang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou.[13][14][15][16] Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu.[17] Not all modern scholars accept Confucius's descent from Song nobility.[18]: 14–15
Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his motherYan Zhengzai (顏徵在) in poverty.[19] His mother later died at less than 40 years of age.[19] At age 19, he marriedLady Qiguan (亓官氏), and a year later the couple had their first child, their sonKong Li (孔鯉).[19] Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child and one was named Kong Jiao (孔姣).[20]
Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned theSix Arts.[21]
Confucius was born into the class ofshi (士), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial.[19][22] When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to havemourned for three years, as was the tradition.[22]
Political career
In Confucius's time, thestate of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke werethree aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of 505 BCE, Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of 501 BCE, the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year (501 BCE), Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime.[23] TheXunzi says that once assuming the post, Confucius ordered the execution ofShaozheng Mao, another Lu state official and scholar whose lectures attracted the three thousand disciples several times exceptYan Hui. Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, eloquent duplicity, erudition in bizarre facts and generosity to evildoers'.[24]
Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In 500 BCE, Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to thestate of Qi. The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in 498 BCE.[25]
Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao, a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore the power of the duke. However, Dubs is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee.[26]
During the revolt by Gongshan,Zhong You had managed to keep the duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.[27]
The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi—as it could have harbored such rebels—or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character.[28]
When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. TheZuo Zhuan recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to Qi, and cause the destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls.[29]
Later in 498 BCE,Duke Ding of Lu personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in theZuo Zhuan and theRecords of the Grand Historian, Confucius departed his homeland in 497 BCE after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families.[30] He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.[31]
Exile
Map showing the journey of Confucius to various states between 497 BCE and 484 BCE
TheShiji stated that the neighboringQi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state.[32] According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the duke of Lu.[32] The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state.
After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around theprincipality states of north-east and central China includingWey,Song,Zheng,Cao,Chu,Qi,Chen, andCai (and a failed attempt to go toJin). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.[33]
According to theZuozhuan, Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu.[34] TheShiji depicts him spending his last years teaching 3000 pupils, with 72 or 77 accomplisheddisciples that mastered theSix Arts. Meanwhile, Confucius dedicated himself in transmitting the old wisdom by writing or editing theFive Classics.[35]
During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.[34]
Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Confucius was buried on the bank of theSishui River, to the north ofQufu City in Shandong Province. Starting as a humble tomb, the cemetery of Confucius had been expanded by emperors since the Han Dynasty. To date, theCemetery of Confucius (孔林) covers an area of 183 hectares with more than 100,000 graves of the Kong descendants, it is included in the World Heritage List for its cultural and architectural value.[36][37]
In theAnalects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is theChinese character for study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic orformalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that they can capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", to aid their self-cultivation to become aperfect man. For example, theAnnals would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events; theBook of Odes reflects the "mood and concerns" of the commoners and their view on government; while theBook of Changes encompasses the key theory and practice of divination.[38][39]
Although some Chinese people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue that its values are secular and that it is less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious.[40] Confucius was considered more of a humanist than a spiritualist,[41] his discussions onafterlife and views concerningHeaven remained indeterminate, and he is largely unconcerned with spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature ofsouls.[42]
One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type ofvirtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, throughallusion,innuendo, and eventautology. His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:
廄焚。子退朝，曰：傷人乎？不問馬。
When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses.
— Analects X.11 (tr.Waley), 10–13 (tr.Legge), or X-17 (tr.Lau)
This remark was considered a strong manifestation of Confucius' advocacy in humanism.[43][44]
One of his teachings was a variant of theGolden Rule, sometimes called the "Silver Rule" owing to its negative form:
子貢問曰：有一言而可以終身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。
Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself."
— Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton
Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. For Confucius, learning about ancient rituals, practices, music, social institutions, and relationship norms is both essential and the starting point for becoming ajunzi. By "learning," Confucius refers to moral cultivation that transforms a student into a superior man, rather than the mere accumulation of knowledge.[45]
The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified inlǐ (禮) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. Some believed thatlǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development oflǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions oflǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.[46]
In the early Confucian tradition,lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in thelǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about whenlǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.
In Confucianism, the concept ofli is closely related toyì (義), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity.Yì can be translated asrighteousness, though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out ofself-interest or profitableness (利). While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome ofyì is doing the right thing for its own sake, without regarding the material gains.[47]
Just as action according tolǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering toyì, soyì is linked to the core value ofrén (仁).Rén consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness.[48]Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; translatorArthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capitalG), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based uponempathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses ofrén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules ofyì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little.[48]
Politics
Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and morality, andnot by using incentives and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Analects 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is an internalization of duty. Confucianism prioritizes creating a harmonious society over the ruler's interests, opposes material incentives and harsh punishments, and downplays the role of institutions in guiding behavior as inLegalism, emphasizing moral virtues instead.[49]
Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore theMandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to the well-being of their people, striving to be a role model in virtue and ritual, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and edicts.[50]
In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.[51]
Music was one of thesix arts that students needed to master, together with archery, charioteering, mathematics, calligraphy, and a partner to music, the purpose of rituals. Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order.[52] Unlike other philosophers around the world, Confucius viewed music andmusic theory beyond a mere art form or curriculum subject, and stated that it was intrinsically intertwined with rites in structuring man.
"Music is that which moves man from the internal; rites are that which affects manon the external. Music brings about harmony. Rites ensure obedience."
To Confucius, music created the focus necessary to unite and harmonize man. Thus, music and rites together were more than beneficial but were to make people act in a manner compatible with heaven and earth.[53] The scholarLi Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth." Therefore, the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper.[53]
The Confucian approach to music was heavily inspired by theShijing or Classic of Poetry and theClassic of Music, which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during theHan dynasty. TheClassic of Poetry serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as poems meant for folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school.[54] In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of poetry in the intellectual and moral development of an individual:[55][56]
The Master said, "My children, why do you not study theBook of Poetry? The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. They teach the art of sociability. They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince. From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants."[55]
Confucians in later generations had conservative and mixed views on international musical influences encroaching on China, in particular those with varying styles that did not traditionally accompany rites, and some preached against sentimental tendencies from thePersians, theGreco-Bactrians, and theMongols.[57]
Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into theAnalects.[58][59] Confucius's disciples and his only grandson,Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death.[60] These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of itsdogma.[61]
Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death,Mencius (孟子) andXunzi (荀子) both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius.Mencius (4th century BCE) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towardsrén,yì, andlǐ, while Xunzi (3rd century BCE) underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with theAnalects and othercore texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.[62]
Towards the end of theWarring States periods,Legalism gained momentum amid the intensified power struggle.[63] Considered an "antithesis of Confucian thinking", Legalism held that humanity and righteousness were not sufficient in government, and that rulers should instead rely on statecrafts, punishments, vigorous administration of law, and warfare.[64][63] Legalism seemed to "win out over theother school of political thoughts" in 221 BCE when theQin state conquered all of China and adopted legalism as its official doctrine.[65]Li Si, Prime Minister of theQin dynasty, convincedQin Shi Huang to completely abolish feudal ranks and privileges of the Zhou dynasty, and to centralize power through the prefectures and county system.[66]
It was not until the Han dynasty that Confucian teachings gained widespread prominence over other thinkers.[67] UnderEmperor Wu of Han, theworks attributed to Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140 BCE which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the imperial China in 1912.[68] AsMohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings ofLaozi, whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the newBuddhist religion, which gained acceptance during theSouthern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in theMing dynasty and even theYuan dynasty, although theMongol rulers somehow distrusted Confucian scholar-officials and excluded them from some of the top government positions.[69]
During theSong dynasty, Confucianism was revitalized in a movement known as Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism was a revival of Confucianism that expanded on classical theories by incorporating metaphysics and new approaches to self-cultivation and enlightenment, influenced by Buddhism and Daoism.[70] The most renowned scholar of this period wasZhu Xi. There are clear Buddhist and Daoist influences in the Neo-Confucian advocacy of "quiet sitting" (meditation) as a technique of self-cultivation that leads to transformative experiences of insight."[71] In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant.[72] Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinkingNeo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century.[73]
Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, published byJesuit missionaries at Paris in 1687
In the modern era Confucian movements, such asNew Confucianism, still exist, but during theCultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in theChinese Communist Party. This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of theQing dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th century.[78]
Confucian teachings, values, and practices permeated and influenced East Asian countries—particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam—in areas such as education systems, civil service selection, and ethical and social relations.[79]
AmongTibetans, Confucius is often worshipped as a holy king and master of magic, divination and astrology.Tibetan Buddhists see him as learning divination from the BuddhaManjushri (and that knowledge subsequently reaching Tibet throughPrincess Wencheng), whileBon practitioners see him as being a reincarnation ofTonpa Shenrab Miwoche, the legendary founder of Bon.[80]
Confucius was regarded as the first teacher who advocated for public welfare and the spread of education in China.[87][88] Confucius devoted his entire life, from a relatively young age, to teaching. He pioneered private education adopting a curriculum known as theSix Arts, aimed at making education accessible to all social classes, and believed in its power to cultivate character rather than merely vocational skills. Confucius not only made teaching his profession but also contributed to the development of a distinct class of professionals in ancient China—the gentlemen who were neither farmers, artisans, merchants, nor officials but instead dedicated themselves to teaching and potential government service.[35][89]
Confucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000 students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding. His disciples and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential intellectual force in theWarring States period.[90] TheHan dynasty historianSima Qian dedicated a chapter in hisRecords of the Grand Historian to the biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in their time and afterward. Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his collective biography, whileKongzi Jiayu, another early source, records 76, not completely overlapping. The two sources together yield the names of 96 disciples.[91] Twenty-two of them are mentioned in theAnalects, while theMencius records 24.[92]
Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a bundle of dried meat from any prospective student. According to his discipleZigong, his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn anybody away.[91] Most of them came fromLu, Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over China, with six from the state ofWey (such as Zigong), three fromQin, two each fromChen andQi, and one each fromCai,Chu, andSong.[91] Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju andGongye Chang.[93] His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation.[91]
Confucius's favorite disciple wasYan Hui, most probably one of the most impoverished of them all.[92] Sima Niu, in contrast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state.[92] Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became well learned in the principles and methods of government.[94] He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual.[94] Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence.[94] Even though Confucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable.[94] In fact, the discipleZilu even died defending his ruler inWey.[94]
Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of theJi family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup, which narrowly failed.[94] As a likely consequence, it was after this that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to government positions.[94] A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which were arranged by Confucius.[95] By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu state over the ruling ducal house.[96] Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment.[96] Confucius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family.[97]
No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during theHan dynasty that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting withLaozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher. An early verbal portrayal of Confucius is found in the chapter "External Things" (外物;Wàiwù) of the bookZhuangzi (莊子;Zhuāngzǐ), finished in about 3rd BCE, long after Confucius's death.[118] The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of theHan dynasty rulerMarquis of Haihun (died 59 BCE). The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror.[119]
In former times, it was customary to have a portrait inConfucius Temples; however, during the reign ofHongwu Emperor (Taizu) of theMing dynasty, it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in thetemple in his home town,Qufu in Shandong. In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on theTang dynasty portrait byWu Daozi.
There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: the 1940 filmConfucius starring Tang Huaiqiu,[121] and the 2010 filmConfucius starringChow Yun-fat.[122]
Throughout the imperial periods,Qufu, Confucius' birthplace and burial site, remained a place of devotion and reverence.[124]: 82–83 TheRecords of the Grand Historian records the first state sacrifice byEmperor Gaozu of Han at Confucius' tomb, followed by worship of ministers, dukes, and scholar politicians.[125] From theTang dynasty onward,temples honoring Confucius and Confucian sages were erected across the country by imperial decree.[126][124]: 83 These temples have been used for ceremonies paying tribute to Confucius as the master of teachers, as well as theConfucian virtues that have shaped the Chinese civilization.[126][127]
When the Communist regime take control of mainland China in 1949, this tradition was interrupted for at least three decades during the Maoist Era in the campaign purging theFour Olds, and the subsequentcampaign denouncing Lin Biao and Confucius.[124]: 85 The official stance of theChinese Communist Party during theCultural Revolution was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary ideologies of the slave-owning aristocracy.[128] All Confucian ceremonies and rites were therefore banned, and Confucius tomb attacked by theRed Guards. In the early 1980s, the anti-Confucius sentiments were over, and Confucius veneration was resumed with Communist officials in attendance. By the 21st century, Confucius' birthday in Qufu becomes a week long celebration attended by diplomats, scholars, and government representatives.[129]
In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. In May 2025, Confucius' birthday - September 28 - previously designated as "Teacher' Day", was made a public holiday by legislation.[130][131]
Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of amarquis 35 times sinceGaozu of theHan dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank ofduke 42 times from theTang dynasty to theQing dynasty.Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055,Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.[133][134]
During theSouthern Song dynasty, the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor toQuzhou in Zhejiang, while the newly establishedJin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng.[135][136][137][138][139][140][141] From that time up until theYuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation,[142] so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.[143][unreliable source?] TheHanlin Academy rank of Wujing boshi五經博士 was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng.[144][145] The leader of the southern branch was 孔祥楷 Kong Xiangkai.[146]
In 1351, during the reign of EmperorToghon Temür of theYuan dynasty, 54th-generation Kong Shao (孔昭) moved from China to Korea during theGoryeo dynasty, and was received courteously byPrincess Noguk (the Mongolian-born queen consort of the future kingGongmin). After being naturalized as a subject of Goryeo, he changed thehanja of his name from "昭" to "紹" (both pronouncedso in Korean),[147] married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo (Korean: 공여;Hanja: 孔帤), 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan (Korean: 창원 공씨;Hanja: 昌原 孔氏), whose ancestral seat was located inChangwon, South Gyeongsang Province.[148] In 1794, during the reign of KingJeongjo, the clan then changed its name toGokbu Gong clan (Korean: 곡부 공씨;Hanja: 曲阜 孔氏) in honor of Confucius's birthplaceQufu (Korean: 곡부;Hanja: 曲阜;RR: Gokbu).[149]
Famous descendants include actors such asGong Yoo (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) andGong Hyo-jin (공효진); and artists such as male idol groupB1A4 memberGongchan (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriterMinzy (real name Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great-aunt, traditional folk dancerGong Ok-jin [ko] (공옥진).
Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by theNationalist government in 1935. The last holder of the title,Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointedSacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson,Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on 1 January 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman.[150] Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today.
Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation,[152] has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to theConfucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC), he has two million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated three million in all.[153] Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China.[153] In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today.[153] One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home inQufu during theChinese Civil War in the 1940s and eventually settled in Taiwan.[150] There are also branches of the Kong family who have converted to Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan in Gansu province in the 1800s,[154] and in 1715 inXuanwei in Yunnan province.[155] Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga (馬甲尕), a Muslim woman, and Kong Yanrong (孔彥嶸), 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480, and are found among theHui andDongxiang peoples.[156][157][158][159] The new genealogy includes the Muslims.[160] Kong Dejun (孔德軍) is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius.
Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members of the collateral branches in mainland China.[161] Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time.[162] The aim of the genetic test was to help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records to prove their descent. However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing.[163]Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics atOxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance ... It's not just a scientific question."[163] The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.[164] The main branch of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all.
In 2013, a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the same Y chromosome as reported byFudan University.[165]
The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the CGCC.[166] It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on 24 September 2009.[166] Women are now included for the first time.[167]
During this time, Confucius was perceived as a reflection ofXia andZhou dynasty slavedriving practice. Specifically, by promoting the upkeep of theRites of Zhou, which itself involved the keeping of slave, he was seen as complicit in its persistence across the ages. This position was justified through entries inRecords of the Grand Historian. With this context, theSpring and Autumn Annals attributed to Confucius were seen as his attempt to defend theState of Lu as a slave state.[169] Furthermore, the execution ofShao Zhengmao was seen as a reflection of bourgeois power games, the charges against the minister being seen as trumped-up.[169][170] It was from this that Confucian principles such asren 仁 and Zhong 忠 were abstracted as symbols of elitism.[171][169]
^Eno, Robert (2003). "The background of the Kong family of Lu and the origins of Ruism".Early China.28. Cambridge University Press:1–41.doi:10.1017/S0362502800000651.JSTOR23354229.S2CID20828205. Eno concludes of Confucius's ancestry that the descent from Song nobility has been constructed to serve an ideological purpose. However he rejects the stronger statement that Confucius's immediate parentage is also fabricated, as proposed by Creel and Jensen.Jensen, Lionel (1995). "Wise man of the wilds: fatherlessness, fertility, and the mythic exemplar Kongzi".Early China.20. Cambridge University Press:407–437.doi:10.1017/S0362502800004570.JSTOR23351776.S2CID163177601. p. 409Creel 1949, pp. 297–298, cited in Eno.
^宥坐.荀子 [Xunzi] (in Literary Chinese).孔子為魯攝相，朝七日而誅少正卯。門人進問曰：「夫少正卯魯之聞人也，夫子為政而始誅之，得無失乎，」孔子曰：「居，吾語女其故。人有惡者五，而盜竊不與焉。一曰心達而險；二曰行辟而堅；三曰言偽而辯；四曰記醜而博；五曰順非而澤。此五者，有一於人，則不得免於君子之誅，而少正卯兼有之。故居處足以聚徒成群，言談足飾邪營眾，強足以反是獨立，此小人之桀雄也，不可不誅也。是以湯誅尹諧，文王誅潘止，周公誅管叔，太公誅華仕，管仲誅付里乙，子產誅鄧析、史付，此七子者，皆異世同心，不可不誅也。詩曰：『憂心悄悄，慍於群小。』小人成群，斯足憂也。」
^Berger, Peter (15 February 2012)."Is Confucianism a Religion?".The American Interest.Archived from the original on 17 August 2015. Retrieved13 August 2015.
^Confucius (2014). Nylan, Michael (ed.).The analects: the Simon Leys translation, interpretations. Translated by Leys, Simon. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. pp. Note to Chapter 10, Line 10.17.ISBN978-0-393-91195-4.
^Cai, Zong-qi (July 1999). "In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry".Philosophy East and West.49 (3):317–345.doi:10.2307/1399898.JSTOR1399898.
^Ames, Roger T.; Hall, David L. (2001).Focusing the Familiar: A Translation and Philosophical Interpretation of the Zhongyong. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 132.ISBN978-0-8248-2460-0.
^R. N. Hema (December 2019).Biography of the 18 Siddhars (Thesis). National Institute of Siddha.Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved2 June 2023.
^"18 Siddhars".www.satsang-darshan.com.Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved12 May 2023.
^Feng Youlan (1966) [1948].Bodde, Derk (ed.).A short history of Chinese philosophy: a systematic account of Chinese thought from its origins to present day. New York: The Free Press. p. 48.ISBN978-0-684-83634-8.
^Schiller, Friedrich (18 November 2010)."Proverbs of Confucius".The Open Court.1905 (5).Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved12 April 2021.
^Zhuangzi, "External Things".Chinese originalArchived 2022-10-11 at theWayback Machine: 「老萊子之弟子出薪，遇仲尼，反以告曰： 『有人於彼，修上而趨下，末僂而後耳，視若營四海，不知其誰氏之子。 』老萊子曰：『 是丘也，召而來！』」.Burton Watson'stranslationArchived 2022-10-27 at theWayback Machine: "A disciple of Lao Lai-tzu was out gathering firewood when he happened to meet Confucius. He returned and reported, 'There's a man over therewith a long body and short legs, his back a little humped and his ears set way back, who looks as though he were trying to attend to everything within the four seas. I don't know who it can be.' Lao Lai-tzu said, 'That's Kung Ch'iu. Tell him to come over here!'"
^Hung, Jeni (5 April 2003)."Children of confucius". The Spectator.Archived from the original on 14 June 2016. Retrieved4 March 2007.....during the... Cultural Revolution, the grave of the 76th Duke... was opened by Red Guards, his body stripped naked and hung from a tree in front of the palace.
^abcd吉林大学学报 [Jilin University Press]. 1974. 林彪与孔老二 [Lin Bao and Kong Lao'er]. Zhonghua Book Company. pp. 3-15.
^Han, Dongping (2008).The Unknown Cultural Revolution: Life and Change in a Chinese Village. New York. p. 123.ISBN978-1-58367-180-1.OCLC227930948.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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