Concrete ships are built primarily withferrocement (reinforced concrete) hulls, reinforced withsteel bars.[1] This contrasts against more traditional materials, such as pure steel or wood. The advantage of ferrocement construction is that materials are cheap and readily available, while the disadvantages are that construction labor costs are high, as are operating costs. Ferrocement ships require thick hulls, which results in either a larger cross-sectional area that hurts hydrodynamics, or leaves less space for cargo.
During the late 19th century, there were concrete river barges in Europe, and during bothWorld War I andWorld War II, steel shortages led the US military to order the construction of small fleets of ocean-going concrete ships, the largest of which was theSSSelma.[2]United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) designation for concrete ships-barges wasType B ship. Few concrete ships were completed in time to see wartime service during World War I, but during 1944 and 1945, concrete ships and barges were used to support U.S. and British invasions in Europe and the Pacific. Since the late 1930s, there have also been ferrocementpleasure boats.[3][4]
The oldest known ferrocement watercraft was adinghy built byJoseph-Louis Lambot in SouthernFrance in 1848. Lambot's boat was featured in theExposition Universelle held inParis in 1855.
Beginning in the 1860s, ferrocementbarges were built in Europe for use on canals, and around 1896, an Italian engineer, Carlo Gabellini, began building small ships out of ferrocement. The most famous of his ships was theLiguria.[5]
Between 1908 and 1914, larger ferrocement barges began to be made in Germany, United Kingdom,[6] the Netherlands, Norway and United States.[7] The remains of a British ship of this type, the auxiliary coasterViolette (built 1919), can be seen atHoo,Kent, England.[8]
On August 2, 1917, Nicolay Fougner of Norway launched the first self-propelled ferrocement ship intended for ocean travel. This was an 84-foot (26 m) vessel of 400 tons namedNamsenfjord. With the success of this ship, additional ferrocement vessels were ordered, and in October 1917, the U.S. government invited Fougner to head a study into the feasibility of building ferrocement ships in the United States.[9][10] The Fougner Concrete Shipbuilding Company,Flushing Bay,New York, reported calculated cost was of $290 per deadweight ton for theCape Fear (List of shipwrecks in 1920 "10.21 30 October") and theSapona which they presumably built.[5]
About the same time, the California businessmanW. Leslie Comyn took the initiative to build ferrocement ships on his own. He formed the San Francisco Ship Building Company (inOakland, California), and hired Alan Macdonald and Victor Poss to design the first American ferrocement ship, a 6,125-ton steamer named theSS Faith.Faith was launched March 18, 1918. She cost $750,000 to build. She was used to carrybulk cargo for trade until 1921, when she was sold and scrapped as abreakwater in Cuba.[5]
On April 12, 1918, PresidentWoodrow Wilson approved theEmergency Fleet Corporation program which oversaw the construction of 24 ferrocement ships for the war. However, when the war ended in November 1918, only 12 ferrocement ships were under construction and none of them had been completed. These 12 ships were eventually completed, but soon sold to private companies who used them for light-trading, storage, and scrap.[5]
Other countries that looked into ferrocement ship construction during this period included Canada, Denmark, Italy, Spain, Sweden[7] and the United Kingdom.[11]
Between the world wars, there was little commercial or military interest in concrete ship construction. The reason was that other shipbuilding methods were cheaper and less labor-intensive, and other kinds of ships were cheaper to operate. However, in 1942, after the U.S. enteredWorld War II, the U.S. military found that its contractors had steel shortages. Consequently, the U.S. government contractedMcCloskey & Company[12] ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania to build 24 self-propelled concrete ships. Construction started in July 1943. The shipyard was at Hookers Point inTampa, Florida, and at its peak, it employed 6,000 workers.[13] The U.S. government also contracted with two companies in California for the construction ofconcrete barge ships.[13] Barge ships were large vessels that lacked engines to propel them. Instead, they were towed by tugs.
In Europe, ferrocement barges (FCBs) played a crucial role in World War II operations, particularly in theD-Day Normandy landings, where they were used as part of theMulberry harbour defenses, for fuel and munitions transportation, asblockships,[14] and as floatingpontoons. In 1940, 200 were commissioned to serve as petrol-carrying barges. The barges weighed 160 tons and were constructed on the London dockside before being craned into the water by a giant crane.[15]
Some barges were fitted with engines and used as mobile canteens and troop carriers. Some of these vessels survive as abandoned wrecks or sea defenses (against storm surges) in theThames Estuary including nearRainham Marshes.[15]) Two remain in civil use asmoorings atWestminster.
One notable wartime FCB, previously beached atCanvey Island, was partially removed in 2003 by the local sailing club, whose land it was on, for fear it was a "danger to children". Local historians disagreed with the club and were displeased with their actions.[16]
In 1944 a concrete firm in California proposed asubmarine shapedfreighter which they claimed could achieve speeds of 75 knots. The war ended any more research into the project. In retrospect many believe the claims were greatly overstated.[17]
Concrete barges also served in thePacific during 1944 and 1945.[18] From theCharleroi, Pennsylvania,Mail, February 5, 1945:
Largest unit of the Army's fleet is a BRL, (Barge, Refrigerated, Large) which is going to the South Pacific to serve fresh frozen foods – even ice cream – to troops weary of dry rations. The vessel can keep 64 carloads of frozen meats and 500 tons of fresh produce indefinitely at 12°F. Equipment on board includes an ice machine of five-ton daily capacity and a freezer that turns out more than a gallon of ice cream a minute. Three of the floating warehouses, designed for tropical warfare, have been built of concrete at National City, Calif., and cost $1,120,000 each. In the crew of the 265-ft. barges are 23 Army men.
One concrete barge under tow byJicarilla (ATF-104) was lost offSaipan during atyphoon, and another barge damaged theMoreton Bay Pile Light inBrisbane,[19] but the rest served admirably.[20]
Modern hobbyists also build ferrocement boats (ferroboats),[21] as their construction methods do not require special tools, and the materials are comparatively cheap. Since the 1960s, theAmerican Society of Civil Engineers has sponsored the NationalConcrete Canoe Competition.[22]
In Europe, especially the Netherlands, concrete is still used to build some of the barges on whichhouseboats are built.[23]
Surviving wartime concrete ships are no longer in use as ships. Several continue in use in various forms, mostly as museums or breakwaters.
The largest collection is atPowell River,British Columbia,49°51′55″N124°33′21″W / 49.865238°N 124.555821°W /49.865238; -124.555821, where a lumber mill uses ten floating ferrocement ships as a breakwater,[24] known asThe Hulks.
TheKiptopeke Breakwater inChesapeake Bay, Virginia,37°09′51″N75°59′29″W / 37.164267°N 75.991402°W /37.164267; -75.991402, is formed by nine sunken concrete ships built in World War II.[25]
SS San Pasqual, a former oil tanker, lies off the coast ofCayo Las Brujas,Cuba,22°37′24″N79°13′24″W / 22.623439°N 79.22327°W /22.623439; -79.22327, where it served as a hotel, then as a base for divers. Currently, theSan Pasqual is abandoned.[26][not specific enough to verify]
The wreckage ofSS Atlantus (commissioned in 1919, sunk in 1926) is visible offSunset Beach nearCape May,New Jersey,38°56′40″N74°58′19″W / 38.944322°N 74.972083°W /38.944322; -74.972083.[26][not specific enough to verify]
The tankerSS Selma is located northwest of the fishing pier atSeawolf Park inGalveston,29°20′39″N94°47′11″W / 29.344249°N 94.786343°W /29.344249; -94.786343. The ship was launched the same day Germany signed theTreaty of Versailles, ending the war, so it never saw wartime duty and instead was used as an oil tanker in theGulf of Mexico.[2]
TheSS Palo Alto, a concrete tanker launched on May 29, 1919, was purchased and turned into an amusement pier, and is still visible atSeacliff State Beach, nearAptos,California,36°58′11″N121°54′50″W / 36.969704°N 121.913947°W /36.969704; -121.913947.[26] It broke up during a January 2017 storm.[27]
The SSMcKittrick, launched in 1921 inWilmington, North Carolina, later became theSS Monte Carlo, a gaming ship offCoronado, California, that ran aground on December 31, 1936. The wreck is periodically exposed by strong storm tides.[28]
The vessel aground in the surf at Shipwreck Beach on the north shore ofLanai, Hawaii is the wreck ofYOG-42,20°55′17″N156°54′37″W / 20.921299°N 156.910139°W /20.921299; -156.910139, a concrete gasoline barge built for the US Navy in 1942 and placed in service in 1943. The wreck is often misidentified as aLiberty ship.[29]
The remains of theCol. J. E. Sawyer can be seen near theUSS Yorktown in Charleston Harbor,32°47′56″N79°54′25″W / 32.798761°N 79.906863°W /32.798761; -79.906863, South Carolina.[30]
The wreckage of theSS Sapona is visible slightly south of Bimini Island in the Bahamas,25°39′02″N79°17′36″W / 25.65063°N 79.29337°W /25.65063; -79.29337. It is a popular snorkeling site and boating landmark in the area.
One of the few concrete ships built for but not completed in time to be used in World War I, the SSCrete Boom, lies abandoned in theRiver Moy,54°08′08″N9°08′18″W / 54.135515°N 9.138452°W /54.135515; -9.138452 just outside the town ofBallina,County Mayo, Ireland, and is considered of much interest to the area's many tourists.[31]
A concrete barge, theCretetree, is beached in the harbour of theIsle of Scalpay nearTarbert, Harris, Scotland,57°52′37″N6°42′00″W / 57.876873°N 6.699965°W /57.876873; -6.699965. It was built byAberdeen Concrete Ships, and completed in 1919.[32]
ThePurton Hulks, a collection of vessels intentionally beached atPurton during the first half of the twentieth century as a method to prevent coastal erosion, includes eight ferro-concrete barges.51°44′14″N2°27′21″W / 51.737178°N 2.455798°W /51.737178; -2.455798[33][not specific enough to verify]
A large collection of abandoned concrete barges are seen at River Thames inRainham, London.[15]51°29′55″N0°10′55″E / 51.498608°N 0.18202°E /51.498608; 0.18202
The wreckage of theUlrich Finsterwalder, a smallNazi-era German tanker, is visible inDąbie Lake, nearSzczecin, Poland. It was sunk during aSoviet air raid on 20 March 1945. In the late 1950s Polish authorities decided to lift it and tow it to another location to be converted into swimming pools, but during that operation it began sinking again, so it was abandoned in shallow water, where it has remained since.[34]
During theGerman occupation of Greece (1942–1944) during World War II, theGerman Army built 24 concrete cargo vessels for transporting goods to variousGreek islands, includingCrete. These were constructed in thePerama shipbuilding area ofPiraeus. After the war, many of the vessels were used as piers (e.g., inRafina,38°01′19″N24°00′37″E / 38.022056°N 24.010368°E /38.022056; 24.010368) andbreakwaters (e.g., in Agios Georgios,Methana,37°38′18″N23°23′40″E / 37.638340°N 23.394544°E /37.638340; 23.394544).
Due to the need to deliver necessary raw materials (such as oil, weapons, ammunition, food and drugs) through mined river currents,Adolf Hitler ordered the production of 50 concrete ships for different purposes. Most were concrete barges made for oil transportation from Romania, and needed raw materials that were driven to the Baltic front. A smaller number of ships was intended for transporting food (specializing in cold storages). The most valuable ships were the specialized ship-hospitals, which evacuated seriously wounded and "important" soldiers to German hospitals along rivers.[citation needed]
Several concrete ships were aground on the west beach ofIwo To (Iwo Jima) in Japan,24°46′57″N141°17′35″E / 24.78238°N 141.293095°E /24.78238; 141.293095, to make a breakwater by the US forces in 1945.[35] Most of them were broken by typhoons but one was used as a pier.[36]
Japan built four concrete ships namedTakechi Maru No. 1 to 4 (武智丸) during World War II. After the war, two of them turned into a breakwater inKure, Hiroshima,34°16′48″N132°45′23″E / 34.280089°N 132.756295°E /34.280089; 132.756295.
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