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Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types ofparadigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

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A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), orfutures
- Actor programming – concurrent computation withactors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction orsimplex algorithm)
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g.spreadsheets)
Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes cf. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
- Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
- Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
- Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
- Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g.Simulink); also termeddiagrammatic programming^[1]

Language overview

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List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language	Paradigm count	Concurrent	Constraints	Dataflow	Declarative	Distributed	Functional	Metaprogramming	Generic	Imperative	Logic	Reflection	Object-oriented	Pipelines	Visual	Rule-based	Other
Ada^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]	5	Yes^{[a 1]}	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
ALF	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
AmigaE ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
APL	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
C++	7 (15)	Yes^[7]^[8]^[9]	Library^[10]	Library^[11]^[12]	Library^[13]^[14]	Library^[15]^[16]	Yes	Yes^[17]	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	Library^[18]^[19]	Library^[20]	Yes^{[a 2]}	Library^[21]	—	Library^[22]	Array (multi-dimensional; usingSTL)
C#	6 (7)	Yes	—	Library^{[a 4]}	—	—	Yes^{[a 5]}	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
ChucK ^{[citation needed]}	3	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Claire	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Clojure	5	Yes^[23]^[24]	—	—	Yes	—	Yes^[25]	Yes^[26]	—	—	Library^[27]	—	—	Yes^[28]	—	—	Multiple dispatch,^[29] Agents^[30]
Common Lisp	7 (14)	Library^[31]	Library^[32]	Library^[33]	Yes^[34]	Library^[35]	Yes	Yes	Yes^[36]	Yes	Library^[37]	Yes	Yes^{[a 7]}^{[a 2]}^[38]	Library^[39]	Library^[40]	Library^[41]	Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,^[42] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl	5	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Curry	4	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
D (version 2.0)^[43]^[44]	7	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^[45]^{[a 3]}	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Delphi	3	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Dylan ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
E	3	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
ECMAScript^[46]^[47] (ActionScript,E4X,JavaScript,JScript)	4 (5)	Partial^{[a 9]}^{[a 10]}	—	—	Library^[48]^[49]	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 11]}	Library^[50]^[51]	—	—	Reactive,^{[a 12]}^[52] event driven^{[a 13]}^{[a 14]}
Erlang	3	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—
Elixir	4	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—
Elm	6	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes (pure)^{[a 15]}	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Reactive
F#	7 (8)	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	Library^{[a 4]}	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
Fortran	4 (5)	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 15]}	—	Yes^{[a 16]}	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Go	4	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	—
Haskell	8 (15)	Yes	Library^[53]	Library^[54]	Yes	Library^[55]	Yes (lazy) (pure)^{[a 15]}	Yes^[56]	Yes	Yes	Library^[57]	—	Partial^{[a 17]}	Yes	Yes	Library^[58]	Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io	4	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}	—	—	—	—
J ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Java	6	Yes	Library^[59]	Library^[60]	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Julia	9 (17)	Yes	Library^[61]	Library^[62]^[63]	Library^[64]	Yes	Yes (eager)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Library^[65]	Yes	Partial^{[a 18]}	Yes	—	Library^[66]^[67]	Multiple dispatch, Array (multi-dimensional); optionallylazy^[68] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin	8	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—
LabVIEW	4	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	—
Lava	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Yes	—	—
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog),CORBA)	9	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	Yes	—
Lua ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}	—	—	—	—
MATLAB	6 (10)	Toolbox^[69]	Toolbox^[70]	Yes^[71]	—	Toolbox^[72]	—	Yes^[73]	Yes^[74]	—	—	Yes^[75]	Yes^[76]	—	Yes^[77]	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle	7	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Object Pascal	4	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
OCaml	4	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Oz	11	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	Yes	—
Perl ^{[citation needed]}	8 (9)	Yes^[78]	—	Yes^[79]	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	—	—
PHP^[80]^[81]^[82]	4	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Poplog	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
Prograph	3	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Yes	—	—
Python	5 (10)	Library^[83]^[84]	Library^[85]	—	—	Library^[86]	Yes	Yes^[87]^[88]	Yes^[89]^[90]	Yes	Library^[91]	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Structured
R	4 (6)	Library^[92]	—	—	—	Library^[93]	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes^[94]	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket	10	Yes^[95]	Yes^[96]	Yes^[97]	—	Yes^[98]	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	Lazy^[99]
Raku	10	Yes^[100]	Library^[101]	Yes^[102]	—	Library^[103]	Yes	Yes^[104]	Yes^[105]	Yes	—	Yes^[106]	Yes^[107]	Yes	—	—	Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP	3	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—
Ruby	5	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha)	6	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^[108]^[109]	Yes^[110]	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Scala^[111]^[112]	9	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	Yes^{[a 19]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Simula ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
SISAL	3	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Spreadsheets	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—
Swift	7	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^[113]	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}^[114]	—	—	—	—
Visual Basic .NET	6 (7)	Yes	—	Library^{[a 4]}	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
Windows PowerShell	6	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	—	—
Wolfram Language &Mathematica	13^[115] (14)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^[116]	—	Yes	Knowledge Based

Notes

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^rendezvous and monitor-like based
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^aiclass-based
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^etemplate metaprogramming
^^a ^b ^cusingTPL Dataflow
^onlylambda support (lazy functional programming)
^^a ^b ^cusingReactive Extensions (Rx)
^multiple dispatch, method combinations
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^eactor programming
^promises, native extensions
^usingNode.js'cluster module orchild_process.fork method,web workers in the browser, etc.
^^a ^b ^c ^dPrototype-based
^usingReactive Extensions (RxJS)
^in Node.js via theirevents module
^in browsers via their nativeEventTarget API
^^a ^b ^cpurely functional
^parameterized classes
^immutable
^Uses structs with function polymorphism and multiple dispatch
^Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at theWayback Machine

Citations

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^Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A".Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (Facebook.Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220.doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508.ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3.S2CID 62509261.
^Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3,Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
^Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
^Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3,Section 12: Generic Units
^Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3,Section 6: Subprograms
^Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3,3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
^Thread support
^Atomics support
^Memory model
^Gecode
^SystemC
^Boost.Iostreams
^Boolinq
^"AraRat"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved2019-09-15.
^OpenMPI
^Boost.MPI
^Boost.MPL
^LC++
^Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at theWayback Machine
^Reflect Library
^N3534
^Boost.Spirit
^Clojure - Concurrent Programming
^Clojure - core.async
^Clojure - Functional Programming
^Clojure - Macros
^Clojure - core.logic
^Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
^Multimethods and Hierarchies
^Agents and Asynchronous Actions
^"concurrency".CLiki.
^[1] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
^[2] dataflow extension
^[3] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
^[4] MPI, etc via language extensions
^template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
^[5][6][7]Prolog implemented as a language extension
^Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
^implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
^- Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
^[8] rule-based programming extension
^[9]Archived 2018-04-26 at theWayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol
^D Language Feature Table
^Phobos std.algorithm
^D language String Mixins
^The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
^Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at theWayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
^"React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.
^"TNG-Hooks".GitHub. 2019-04-08.
^"Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.
^"mori". 2019-04-08.
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^"Functional Reactive Programming".HaskellWiki.
^Cloud Haskell
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^Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006)."Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell"(PDF).Oregon State University.
^https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
^https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
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^"GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl".GitHub. 2019-01-15.
^"GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia".GitHub. 2018-12-28.
^https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
^https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
^"GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia".GitHub. 2018-12-03.
^"GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia".GitHub. 2017-08-03.
^Lazyhttps://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
^"Execute loop iterations in parallel".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
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^"Getting Started with SimEvents".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"Execute loop iterations in parallel".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"Determine class of object".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"Class Metadata".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"Object-Oriented Programming".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"Simulink".mathworks.com. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^interpreter based threads
^Higher Order Perl
^PHP Manual,Chapter 17. Functions
^PHP Manual,Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
^PHP Manual,Anonymous functions
^"Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python".Python Wiki. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"threading — Higher-level threading interface".docs.python.org. Retrieved21 October 2016.
^"python-constraint".pypi.python.org. Retrieved21 October 2016.
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^"Metaprogramming".readthedocs.io. Retrieved22 October 2016.
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^Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
^The Rosette Guide
^FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
^Racket Guide: Distributed Places
^Lazy Racket
^Channels and other mechanisms
^"Problem Solver module".
^Feed operator
^https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
^"Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14.
^https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
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^An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
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References

[edit]

Jim Coplien,Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.

Programming paradigms (Comparison by language)

Imperative

Structured	Jackson structures Block-structured Modular Non-structured Procedural Programming in the large and in the small Design by contract Invariant-based Nested function
Object-oriented (comparison,list)	Class-based,Prototype-based,Object-based Agent Immutable object Persistent Uniform function call syntax

Declarative

Functional (comparison)	Recursive Anonymous function (Partial application) Higher-order Purely functional Total Strict GADTs Dependent types Functional logic Point-free style Expression-oriented Applicative,Concatenative Function-level,Value-level Monad
Dataflow	Flow-based Reactive (Functional reactive) Signals Streams Synchronous
Logic	Abductive logic Answer set Constraint (Constraint logic) Inductive logic Nondeterministic Ontology Probabilistic logic Query
Domain- specific language (DSL)	Algebraic modeling Array Automata-based (Action) Command (Spacecraft) Differentiable End-user Grammar-oriented Interface description Language-oriented List comprehension Low-code Modeling Natural language Non-English-based Page description Pipes andfilters Probabilistic Quantum Scientific Scripting Set-theoretic Simulation Stack-based System Tactile Templating Transformation (Graph rewriting,Production,Pattern) Visual