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Community-based conservation (CBC) is aconservation movement that emerged in the 1980s, also in response to escalating protests and subsequent dialogue with local communities affected by international attempts to protect thebiodiversity of the earth. These contentions were a reaction against 'top down' conservation practices, imposed by governments or large organisations and perceived as disregarding the interests of local inhabitants,[1] often based upon theWestern idea ofnature being separate fromculture. The objective of some CBC initiatives is to actively involve some members of local communities in the conservation efforts that affect them, incorporating improvement to their lives while conserving nature through the creation of national parks or wildlife refuges.[2]
A more radical understanding of 'community conservation' highlights the conservation value of the historically careful, sustainable and in many ways protective interaction of human communities with their natural environments. In this light, Indigenous Peoples and local communities have the capacity of being 'custodians' of their 'territories of life'.[3] This capacity comes to life depending on a combination of factors, some of which are intrinsic to the communities themselves and others depend on their ecological, economic and political context. In particular, State governments, international agencies and the private sector need to allow and support communities, rather than impeding them in their custodian role. Colonialism, neo-colonialism, economic growth 'at all costs' and perennial war are the true enemies of Nature. Empowered, aware and self-determined communities are her natural allies. The clearest example is offered by the hundreds of community members killed, and the thousands maimed and oppressed, every year, as they try to defend ther environments from extractive and destructive imposed developments.[4]
The emergence of CBC is deeply tied to the legacy of colonial conservation practices and the political struggles they provoked. Early conservation efforts, particularly the establishment of national parks likeYellowstone (1872) andYosemite (1890), followed a "fortress conservation" model: nature was to be preserved by excluding people. This model ignoredIndigenous land stewardship and often involved the forced displacement of local communities—an approach later replicated acrossAfrica,Asia, andLatin America duringcolonial andpost-colonial periods. Estimates suggest that more than 20 million people have been displaced globally under exclusionary conservation regimes.[6]
By the mid-20th century, critiques of this model intensified. Scholars and activists pointed to the ethical and ecological failings of removing communities from their ancestral lands. In 1975, theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) first acknowledged that traditional ways of life could support biodiversity conservation.[3]
The term "community-based conservation" gained traction in the 1980s and 1990s as both a critique of top-downenvironmentalism and an alternative rooted inparticipatory governance,local knowledge, and equitable benefit-sharing. Landmark events helped solidify its legitimacy: the 2003 World Parks Congress inDurban and the 2004 Convention on Biological Diversity meeting inKuala Lumpur formally recognized the role of Indigenous Peoples and local communities in governing protected areas.[3] This momentum continued with theSydney Congress in 2014, which affirmed that territories conserved by communities hold conservation value equal to that of state-managed protected areas.[3]
CBC relies on a variety of strategies that alignecological stewardship with localempowerment. These approaches seek to replace exclusionary models of environmental protection with participatory frameworks that acknowledge thecultural,political, andeconomic realities of communities living withbiodiversity.
A widespread approach is co-management, in which responsibilities for protected areas are shared between state institutions and local communities. This strategy blendstraditional ecological knowledge with scientific input and has been applied in various contexts acrossAfrica andAsia.[7][8]
CBC programs frequently aim to strengthen customarygovernance systems, recognizingIndigenous communities as effective stewards of biodiversity. Territories managed under traditional practices, often termedTerritories of Life, have shown high conservation value.[3]
Economic strategies within CBC includeecotourism,rotational grazing, non-timber forest products,sustainable fisheries, and carbon-based initiatives. When benefits are distributed equitably, these models can generate support for conservation.[9] However, unequal distribution and elite capture remain challenges in many projects.[10]
Communities also leadecological restoration. InIndonesia, local groups have restoredpeatlands through rewetting,paludiculture, andreplanting, aiding both biodiversity andcarbon sequestration.[11] Similar efforts inCentral Java showed that local participation in land rehabilitation improvedsediment control and soil conservation.[12]
In many CBC efforts, communitiesmonitor biodiversity and habitat conditions, providing data foradaptive management. This not only enhances ecological outcomes but also builds local knowledge andleadership.[8][13]
Legal frameworks that acknowledge communal land rights are essential for long-term success. Without them, communities face risks ofmarginalization ordispossession despite their conservation roles.[3][6]
CBC tends to be most effective wheretraditional ecological knowledge is recognized,governance is inclusive, and conservation goals align with the everyday needs of communities.
In some regions, CBC has been associated with improvements invegetation cover,biodiversity, andsoil health. For example, in parts ofKenya, community-managed lands have shown higher nutrient levels and increasedprimary productivity, reflecting positive environmental recovery.[8] Also, in the CBC has been proven to reducedegradation, restorehydrology, and improve biodiversity when applied intropicalwetlands inIndonesia.[11]
In other cases, ecological benefits have been more limited or inconsistent. InMadagascar, outcomes have included localized reductions inforest loss, but also instances where environmental pressure was displaced to surrounding areas. Conservation initiatives often struggled to maintain long-term effectiveness when they lacked sustained support or failed to integrate with local livelihoods.[10]
CBC’s ability to support communities depends on how decisions are made, how benefits are shared, and whether local voices are genuinely included in shaping conservation efforts. In severalAfrican regions, this approach has contributed to improved access toeducation andhealthcare, stronger community institutions, and greaterfood security through locally managedgrazing systems and resource distribution. In some cases, income fromtourism and conservation-related employment has supported local livelihoods.[8]
However, CBC has also faced criticism where its implementation has reinforced existinginequalities. In places likeMadagascar, the costs of conservation, such as restricted access to land or forest resources, have often fallen disproportionately on poorerhouseholds. At the same time, financial and institutional benefits have frequently been concentrated among localelites or external actors. In many cases, community participation has been limited to carrying out decisions made elsewhere, weakening local engagement andtrust.[10]
The challenges and controversies in horizon scanning reveal a complex landscape of environmental and social issues. With growing violence against environmental human rights defenders and the unpredictability of human migration patterns, the urgency of addressing these issues becomes apparent.[14] Horizon scanning efforts encountered difficulties in balancing novelty with plausibility, impact, and pervasiveness, particularly concerning topics less familiar to collaborators. Moreover, the under-representation of economic and legal expertise in the collaboration underscores the need for diverse perspectives in assessing emerging trends. Discussions often veered into debates over the nature of identified trends and their potential impact, highlighting the nuanced nature of horizon scanning. Amidst these challenges, the significance of CBC emerges as a multifaceted approach that benefits both nature and people. It underscores the inseparability of conservation efforts from ethical considerations and aims to balance biodiversity conservation with human well-being. Ultimately, CBC stands as a strategy for addressing the interconnected crises facing our planet.
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