Theraccoon (/rəˈkuːn/ orUS:/ræˈkuːn/ⓘ,Procyon lotor), sometimes called theNorth American,northern orcommon raccoon (also spelledracoon)[3] to distinguish it fromother species of raccoon, is amammal native toNorth America. It is the largest of theprocyonid family, having a body length of 40 to 70 cm (16 to 28 in), and a body weight of 5 to 26 kg (11 to 57 lb). Its grayish coat mostly consists of denseunderfur, which insulates it against cold weather. The animal's most distinctive features include its extremely dexterous frontpaws, its facial mask, and its ringed tail, which are common themes in themythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas surrounding the species. The raccoon is noted for itsintelligence, and studies show that it can remember the solution to tasks for at least three years. It is usuallynocturnal andomnivorous, eating about 40%invertebrates, 33%plants, and 27%vertebrates.
The originalhabitats of the raccoon aredeciduous andmixed forests. Still, due to their adaptability, they have extended their range to mountainous areas,coastal marshes, andurban areas, where some homeowners consider them to bepests. As a result of escapes and deliberateintroductions in the mid-20th century, raccoons are now also distributed acrosscentral Europe, theCaucasus, andJapan. In Europe, the raccoon has been included on the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern since 2016.[4] This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of theEuropean Union.[5]
Though raccoons were previously thought to be generally solitary, there is now evidence that they engage in sex-specificsocial behavior. Related females often share a common area, while unrelated males live together in groups of up to four raccoons to maintain their positions against foreign males during the mating season and against other potential invaders.Home range sizes vary anywhere from 3 ha (7.4 acres) for females in cities, to 5,000 ha (50 km2; 19 sq mi) for males inprairies. After agestation of about 65 days, two to five young known as "kits" are born in spring. The kits are subsequently raised by their mother until dispersal in late fall. Although captive raccoons have been known to live over 20 years, their life expectancy in the wild is only 1.8 to 3.1 years. In many areas,hunting and vehicular injury are the two most common causes of death.
Etymology
The mask of a raccoon is often interrupted by a brown-black streak that extends from forehead to nose.[6]
Names for the species include thecommon raccoon,[7]North American raccoon,[8] andnorthern raccoon.[9] In various North American native languages, the reference to the animal's manual dexterity, or use of its hands, is the source for the names.[10] The wordraccoon was adopted into English from the nativePowhatan term meaning 'animal that scratches with its hands',[better source needed] as used in theColony of Virginia. It was recorded onJohn Smith's list of Powhatan words asaroughcun, and on that ofWilliam Strachey asarathkone.[11] It has also been identified as a reflex of aProto-Algonquian root*ahrah-koon-em, meaning '[the] one who rubs, scrubs and scratches with its hands'.[12][better source needed] The word is sometimes spelled asracoon.[13]
InSpanish, the raccoon is calledmapache, derived from theNahuatlmapachtli of theAztecs, meaning '[the] one who takes everything in its hands'.[14]
Its Latin name,Procyon lotor, literally means 'before-dog washer'.[15] The genusProcyon was named byGottlieb Conrad Christian Storr.[10] The animal's observed habit of "washing" or "dousing" (see below) is the source of its name in other languages.[16][17] For example, the Frenchraton laveur means 'washing rat'.
Thecolloquial abbreviationcoon is used in words likecoonskin forfur clothing and in phrases likeold coon as a self-designation oftrappers.[18][19] In the 1830s, the United StatesWhig Party used the raccoon as an emblem, causing them to be pejoratively known as "coons" by their political opponents, who saw them as too sympathetic to African-Americans. Soon after that, the term became anethnic slur,[20] especially in use between 1880 and 1920 (seecoon song). The term is still considered offensive.[21] Dogs bred to hunt raccoons are calledcoonhound andcoon dog.[22] Due to having a habit of eating human garbage in urban environments, raccoons are also colloquially known as "trash pandas".[23]
In the first decades after its discovery by the members of the expedition ofChristopher Columbus, who were the first Europeans to leave a written record about the species,taxonomists thought the raccoon was related to many different species, includingdogs,cats,badgers and particularlybears.[24]Carl Linnaeus, the father of modern taxonomy, placed the raccoon in the genusUrsus, first asUrsus cauda elongata ('long-tailed bear') in the second edition of hisSystema Naturae (1740), then asUrsus Lotor ('washer bear') in thetenth edition (1758–59).[25][26] In 1780,Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr placed the raccoon in its own genusProcyon, which can be translated as either 'before the dog' or 'doglike'.[27][28] It is also possible that Storr had itsnocturnal lifestyle in mind and chose the starProcyon as eponym for the species.[29][30]
Evolution
Based onfossil evidence from Russia and Bulgaria, the first known members of the familyProcyonidae lived in Europe in the lateOligocene about 25 million years ago.[31] Similar tooth and skull structures suggest procyonids andweasels share a common ancestor, but molecular analysis indicates a closer relationship between raccoons and bears.[32] After the then-existing species crossed theBering Strait at least six million years later in the earlyMiocene, the center of its distribution was probably in Central America.[33]Coatis (Nasua andNasuella) and raccoons (Procyon) have been considered to share common descent from a species in the genusParanasua present between 5.2 and 6.0 million years ago.[34] This assumption, based on morphological comparisons of fossils, conflicts with a 2006 genetic analysis which indicates raccoons are more closely related toringtails.[35] Unlike other procyonids, such as thecrab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus), the ancestors of the common raccoon lefttropical andsubtropical areas and migrated farther north about 2.5 million years ago, in a migration that has been confirmed by the discovery of fossils in theGreat Plains dating back to the middle of thePliocene.[36][34] Its most recent ancestor was likelyProcyon rexroadensis, a largeBlancan raccoon from theRexroad Formation characterized by its narrow back teeth and large lower jaw.[37]
Subspecies
A Torch Key raccoon (P. l. incautus) inCudjoe Key, Florida. Subspecies inhabiting theFlorida Keys are characterized by their small size and very pale fur.Female raccoon of the Vancouver Island subspecies atSidney, British Columbia, with characteristic dark fur.
As of 2005,Mammal Species of the World recognizes 22 subspecies of raccoons.[38] Four of these subspeciesliving only on small Central American andCaribbean islands were often regarded as distinct species after their discovery. These are theBahamian raccoon andGuadeloupe raccoon, which are very similar to each other; theTres Marias raccoon, which is larger than average and has an angular skull; and theextinctBarbados raccoon. Studies of their morphological and genetic traits in 1999, 2003, and 2005 led all theseisland raccoons to be listed assubspecies of the common raccoon inMammal Species of the World's third edition. A fifth island raccoon population, theCozumel raccoon, which weighs only 3 to 4 kg (6.6 to 8.8 lb) and has notably small teeth, is still regarded as a separate species.[39][40][41][42]
The four smallest raccoon subspecies, with a typical weight of 1.8 to 2.7 kg (4.0 to 6.0 lb), live along the southern coast ofFlorida and on the adjacent islands; an example is the Ten Thousand Islands raccoon (Procyon lotor marinus).[43] Most of the other 15 subspecies differ only slightly from each other in coat color, size and other physical characteristics.[44][45] The two most widespread subspecies are the eastern raccoon (Procyon lotor lotor) and the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon (Procyon lotor hirtus). Both share a comparatively dark coat with long hairs, but the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon is larger than the eastern raccoon. The eastern raccoon occurs in all U.S. states and Canadian provinces to the north ofSouth Carolina andTennessee. The adjacent range of the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon covers all U.S. states and Canadian provinces to the north ofLouisiana,Texas, andNew Mexico.[46]
The taxonomic identity of feral raccoons inhabiting Central Europe, Causasia, and Japan is unknown, as the founding populations consisted of uncategorized specimens from zoos and fur farms.[47]
A small and dark subspecies with long, soft fur.[48]
Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, southern Quebec, and southern Ontario south through the eastern United States to North Carolina, and from the Atlantic coast west to Lake Michigan, Indiana, southern Illinois, western Kentucky, and probably eastern Tennessee.
annulatus (G. Fischer, 1814)
brachyurus (Wiegmann, 1837) fusca (Burmeister, 1850) gularis (C. E. H. Smith, 1848) melanus (J. E. Gray, 1864) obscurus (Wiegmann, 1837) rufescens (de Beaux, 1910) vulgaris (Tiedemann, 1808)
Key Vaca and doubtless closely adjoining keys of the Key Vaca Group, a central section of the main chain off the southern coast of Florida.
Florida raccoon P. l. elucus
Bangs, 1898
Generally a medium-sized and dark-colored subspecies with a prominent rusty rufous nuchal patch.[50]
Peninsular Florida, except the southwestern part inhabited byP. l. marinus, north to extreme southern Georgia; grading intoP. l. varius in northwest Florida.
Snake River drainage in southeastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and southern Idaho, the Humboldt River Valley, Nev., and river valleys of northeastern California.
Texas, except extreme northern and western parts, southern Arkansas, Louisiana, except the delta region of Mississippi, and south into northeastern Mexico, including Coahuila and Nuevo León, to southern Tamaulipas.
A large and dark grayish subspecies with a flattish skull and heavy dentition.[55]
Mexican mainland (primarily central, western, and southern Mexico), extending southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and northern Panama.[56][42]
crassidens (Hollister, 1914)
dickeyi (Nelson and Goldman, 1931) mexicana (Baird, 1858) shufeldti (Nelson and Goldman, 1931)
Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon P. l. hirtus
Nelson and Goldman, 1930
A large and dark-furred subspecies, whose pelage is usually suffused with ochraceous buff.[57]
Upper Mississippi and Missouri River drainage areas from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains east to Lake Michigan, and from southern Manitoba and probably southwestern Ontario and southeastern Alberta south to southern Oklahoma and Arkansas.
Torch Key raccoon P. l. incautus
Nelson, 1930
A small subspecies with very pale fur (the palest of the Florida raccoons).[58]
Big Pine Key Group, near the southwestern end of the chain of Florida Keys.
Matecumbe Key raccoon P. l. inesperatus
Nelson, 1930
Similar toP. l. elucus, but smaller and grayer and with a flatter skull.[59]
Key Largo Group, embracing fringing keys along the southeast coast of Florida, from Virginia Key south to Lower Matecumbe Key.
Keys of the Ten Thousand Islands Group, and the adjoining mainland of southwestern Florida from Cape Sable north through the Everglades to Lake Okeechobee.
A dark-furred subspecies with a relatively broad, flat skull.[66]
Southwestern British Columbia, except Vancouver Island, northern, central, and western Washington, western Oregon, and extreme northwestern California.
proteus (Brass, 1911)
Colorado Desert raccoon P. l. pallidus
Merriam, 1900
One of the palest subspecies, around the same size asP. l. mexicanus.[67]
Colorado and Gila River Valleys and adjoining territory from the delta north to northeastern Utah, and east to western Colorado and northwestern New Mexico.
ochraceus (Mearns, 1914)
California raccoon P. l. psora
Gray, 1842
A large and moderately dark subspecies with a broad, rather flat skull.[68]
California, except the extreme northwest coastal strip, the northeastern corner, and southeastern desert region, ranging south through northwestern Baja California to San Quentin; extreme west central Nevada.
californicus (Means, 1914)
Isthmian raccoon P. l. pumilus
Miller, 1911
Similar toP. l. crassidens in color, but has a shorter, broader, and flatter skull.[69]
Panama and the Canal Zone from Porto Bello west to Boqueron, Chiriqui, though the limits of its range are unknown.
†Short-faced raccoon P. l. simus
Gidley, 1906
APleistocene subspecies similar toP. l. excelsus, but with a deeper lower jaw and a more robust dentition.[70][71]
California.
Vancouver Island raccoon P. l. vancouverensis
Nelson and Goldman, 1930
A dark-furred subspecies, similar toP. l. pacificus but smaller.[72]
Known only from Vancouver Island.
Description
Physical characteristics
Lower side of front paw with visiblevibrissae on the tips of the digits
Head to hindquarters, raccoons measure between 40 and 70 cm (16 and 28 in), not including the bushy tail which can measure between 20 and 40 cm (7.9 and 15.7 in), but is usually not much longer than 25 cm (9.8 in).[73][74][75] The shoulder height is between 23 and 30 cm (9.1 and 11.8 in).[76] The body weight of an adult raccoon varies considerably withhabitat, making the raccoon one of the most variably sized mammals. It can range from 2 to 26 kg (4.4 to 57.3 lb), but is usually between 5 and 12 kg (11 and 26 lb). The smallest specimens live in southern Florida, while those near the northern limits of the raccoon's range tend to be the largest(seeBergmann's rule).[77] Males are usually 15 to 20% heavier than females.[78] At the beginning of winter, a raccoon can weigh twice as much as in spring because of fat storage.[79][80][81] The largest recorded wild raccoon weighed 28.4 kg (63 lb) and measured 140 cm (55 in) in total length, by far the largest size recorded for a procyonid.[82][83]
The most characteristic physical feature of the raccoon is the area of blackfur around the eyes, which contrasts sharply with the surrounding white face coloring. This is reminiscent of a "bandit's mask" and has thus enhanced the animal's reputation for mischief.[84][85] The slightly rounded ears are also bordered by white fur. Raccoons are assumed to recognize the facial expression and posture of other members of their species more quickly because of the conspicuous facial coloration and the alternating light and dark rings on the tail.[86][87][88] The dark mask may also reduceglare and thus enhancenight vision.[87][88] On other parts of the body, the long and stiffguard hairs, which shed moisture, are usually colored in shades of gray and, to a lesser extent, brown.[89] Raccoons with a very dark coat are more common in the German population because individuals with such coloring were among those initially released to the wild.[90] The denseunderfur, which accounts for almost 90% of the coat, insulates against cold weather and is composed of 2 to 3 cm (0.79 to 1.18 in) long hairs.[89]
The raccoon, whose method oflocomotion is usually considered to beplantigrade, can stand on its hind legs to examine objects with its front paws.[91][92] As raccoons have short legs compared to their compact torso, they are usually not able to run quickly or jump great distances.[93][94] Their top speed over short distances is 16 to 24 km/h (9.9 to 14.9 mph).[95][96] Raccoons can swim with an average speed of about 5 km/h (3.1 mph) and can stay in the water for several hours.[97][94] For climbing down a tree headfirst—an unusual ability for a mammal of its size—a raccoon rotates its hind feet so they are pointing backwards.[98][94] Raccoons have a dual cooling system toregulate their temperature; that is, they can both sweat and pant for heat dissipation.[99][100]
Raccoon skulls have a short and wide facial region and a voluminousbraincase. Thefacial length of the skull is less than thecranial, and theirnasal bones are short and quite broad. Theauditory bullae is inflated in form, and thesagittal crest is weakly developed.[101] Thedentition—40 teeth with thedental formula:3.1.4.23.1.4.2—is adapted to theiromnivorous diet: thecarnassials are not as sharp and pointed as those of a full-timecarnivore, but themolars are not as wide as those of aherbivore.[102] Thepenis bone of males is about 10 cm (3.9 in) long and strongly bent at the front end,[103][104] and its shape can be used to distinguish juvenile males from mature males.[105][106][107] Seven of the thirteen identified vocal calls are used incommunication between the mother and her kits, one of these being the birdlike twittering of newborns.[108][109][100]
Senses
The most important sense for the raccoon is itssense of touch.[110][111][112] The "hyper sensitive"[111] front paws are protected by a thinhorny layer that becomes pliable when wet.[113][114] The five digits of the paws have no webbing between them, which is unusual for acarnivoran.[115] Almost two-thirds of the area responsible forsensory perception in the raccoon'scerebral cortex is specialized for the interpretation of tactile impulses, more than in any other studied animal.[116] They are able to identify objects before touching them withvibrissae located above their sharp, nonretractableclaws.[91][112] The raccoon's paws lack an opposablethumb; thus, it does not have the agility of the hands ofprimates.[112][114] There is no observed negative effect on tactile perception when a raccoon stands in water below 10 °C (50 °F) for hours.[117]
Raccoons are thought to becolor blind or at least poorly able to distinguish color, though their eyes are well-adapted for sensing green light.[118][119][120] Although theiraccommodation of 11dioptre is comparable to that of humans and they see well in twilight because of thetapetum lucidum behind theretina,visual perception is of subordinate importance to raccoons because of their poor long-distance vision.[121][122][123] In addition to being useful for orientation in the dark, theirsense of smell is important for intraspecific communication. Glandularsecretions (usually from theiranal glands), urine and feces are used for marking.[124][125][126] With their broadauditory range, they can perceive tones up to 50–85 kHz as well as quiet noises, like those produced byearthworms underground.[127][128]
Intelligence
ZoologistClinton Hart Merriam described raccoons as "clever beasts", and that "in certain directions their cunning surpasses that of the fox". The animal's intelligence gave rise to the epithet "sly coon".[129] Only a few studies have been undertaken to determine the mental abilities of raccoons, most of them based on the animal's sense of touch. In a study by theethologist H. B. Davis in 1908, raccoons were able to open 11 of 13 complex locks in fewer than 10 tries and had no problems repeating the action when the locks were rearranged or turned upside down. Davis concluded that they understood theabstract principles of the locking mechanisms and their learning speed was equivalent to that ofrhesus macaques.[130]
Studies in 1963, 1973, 1975, and 1992 concentrated on raccoonmemory showed that they can remember the solutions to tasks for at least three years.[131] In a study by B. Pohl in 1992, raccoons were able to instantly differentiate between identical and different symbols three years after the short initial learning phase.[131]Stanislas Dehaene reports in his bookThe Number Sense that raccoons can distinguish boxes containing two or four grapes from those containing three.[132] In research bySuzana Herculano-Houzel and otherneuroscientists, raccoons are comparable toprimates in density ofneurons in thecerebral cortex, which they have proposed to be aneuroanatomical indicator of intelligence.[133][134]
Behavior
Social behavior
Eastern raccoons (P. l. lotor) in a tree: The raccoon's social structure is grouped into whatUlf Hohmann calls a "three-class society".California raccoon (P. l. psora) climbing a tree inLower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge
Studies in the 1990s by the ethologists Stanley D. Gehrt andUlf Hohmann suggest that raccoons engage in sex-specificsocial behaviors and are not typically solitary, as was previously thought.[135][136] Related females often live in a so-called "fission-fusion society"; that is, they share a common area and occasionally meet at feeding or resting grounds.[137][138] Unrelated males often form loose male social groups to maintain their position against foreign males during themating season—or against other potential invaders.[139] Such a group does not usually consist of more than four individuals.[140][141] Since some males show aggressive behavior towards unrelated kits, mothers will isolate themselves from other raccoons until their kits are big enough to defend themselves.[142]
Concerning these three different modes of life prevalent among raccoons, Hohmann called theirsocial structure a "three-class society".[143] Samuel I. Zeveloff, professor ofzoology atWeber State University and author of the bookRaccoons: A Natural History, is more cautious in his interpretation and concludes at least the females are solitary most of the time and, according to Erik K. Fritzell's study inNorth Dakota in 1978, males in areas with low population densities are solitary as well.[144]
The shape and size of a raccoon'shome range vary depending on age, sex, and habitat, with adults claiming areas more than twice as large as juveniles.[145] While the size of home ranges in the habitat of North Dakota'sprairies lie between 7 and 50 km2 (3 and 20 sq mi) for males and between 2 and 16 km2 (1 and 6 sq mi) for females, the average size in amarsh atLake Erie was 0.5 km2 (0.19 sq mi).[146] Irrespective of whether the home ranges of adjacent groups overlap, they are most likely not actively defended outside the mating season if food supplies are sufficient.[147] Odor marks on prominent spots are assumed to establish home ranges and identify individuals.[126] Urine and feces left at sharedraccoon latrines may provide additional information about feeding grounds, since raccoons were observed to meet there later for collective eating, sleeping, and playing.[148]
Concerning the general behavior patterns of raccoons, Gehrt points out that "typically you'll find 10 to 15 percent that will do the opposite" of what is expected.[149]
Diet
Though usually nocturnal, the raccoon is sometimes active in daylight to take advantage of available food sources.[150][151] Its diet consists of about 40%invertebrates, 33%plant material and 27%vertebrates.[152] Since its diet consists of such a variety of different foods, Zeveloff argues the raccoon "may well be one of the world's most omnivorous animals".[153] While its diet in spring and early summer consists mostly of insects, worms, and other animals already available early in the year, it prefers fruits and nuts, such asacorns andwalnuts, which emerge in late summer and autumn, and represent a rich calorie source for building up fat needed for winter.[154][155]
Contrary to popular belief, raccoons only occasionally eat active or large prey, such asbirds andmammals. They prefer prey that is easier to catch, specificallycrayfish,insects,[156]fish,amphibians and bird eggs.[157] Raccoons are virulent predators of eggs and hatchlings in both birds andreptile nests, to such a degree that, for threatened prey species, raccoons may need to be removed from the area or nests may need to be relocated to mitigate the effect of their predations (i.e. in the case of some globally threatenedturtles).[158][159][160][161][162] When food is plentiful, raccoons can develop strong individual preferences for specific foods.[80] In the northern parts of their range, raccoons go into awinter rest, reducing their activity drastically as long as a permanent snow cover makes searching for food difficult.[163]
Dousing
Captive raccoons often douse their food before eating.
One aspect of raccoon behavior is so well known that it gives the animal part of its scientific name,Procyon lotor;lotor is Latin for 'washer'. In the wild, raccoons often dabble for underwater food near the shoreline. They then often pick up the food item with their front paws to examine it and rub the item, sometimes to remove unwanted parts. This gives the appearance of the raccoon "washing" the food. The tactile sensitivity of raccoons' paws is increased if this rubbing action is performed underwater, since the water softens the hard layer covering the paws.[111][164] However, the behavior observed in captive raccoons in which they carry their food to water to "wash" or douse it before eating has not been observed in the wild.[165][166]NaturalistGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, believed that raccoons do not have adequatesaliva production to moisten food thereby necessitating dousing, but this hypothesis is now considered to be incorrect.[164][165][167][168] Captive raccoons douse their food more frequently when a watering hole with a layout similar to a stream is not farther away than 3 m (10 ft).[168] The widely accepted theory is that dousing in captive raccoons is afixed action pattern from the dabbling behavior performed when foraging at shores for aquatic foods.[164][168][169][170] This is supported by the observation that aquatic foods are doused more frequently. Cleaning dirty food does not seem to be a reason for "washing".[168]
Reproduction
Raccoons usuallymate in a period triggered by increasing daylight between late January and mid-March.[171][172][173] However, there are large regional differences which are not completely explicable by solar conditions. For example, while raccoons in southern states typically mate later than average, the mating season inManitoba also peaks later than usual in March and extends until June.[173] During the mating season, males restlessly roam their home ranges in search of females in an attempt to court them during the three- to four-day period when conception is possible. These encounters will often occur at central meeting places.[174][175][176]Copulation, including foreplay, can last over an hour and is repeated over several nights.[177] The weaker members of a male social group also are assumed to get the opportunity to mate, since the stronger ones cannot mate with all available females.[178] In a study in southern Texas during the mating seasons from 1990 to 1992, about one-third of all females mated with more than one male.[179] If a female does not becomepregnant or if she loses her kits early, she will sometimes become fertile again 80 to 140 days later.[180][181][182]
An eastern raccoon (P. l. lotor) kit
After usually 63 to 65 days ofgestation (although anywhere from 54 to 70 days is possible), alitter of typically two to five young is born.[183][184] The average litter size varies widely with habitat, ranging from 2.5 inAlabama to 4.8 inNorth Dakota.[185][186] Larger litters are more common in areas with a high mortality rate, due, for example, tohunting or severe winters.[187][186] While male yearlings usually reach their sexual maturity only after the main mating season, female yearlings can compensate for high mortality rates and may be responsible for about 50% of all young born in a year.[188][189][190] Males have no part in raising young.[140][191][192] The kits (also called "cubs") are blind and deaf at birth, but their mask is already visible against their light fur.[193][194] The birth weight of the roughly 10 cm (4 in)-long kits is between 60 and 75 g (2.1 and 2.6 oz).[194] Their ear canals open after around 18 to 23 days, a few days before their eyes open for the first time.[195] Once the kits weigh about 1 kg (2 lb), they begin to explore outside the den, consuming solid food for the first time after six to nine weeks.[196][197] After this point, their mothersuckles them with decreasing frequency; they are usually weaned by 16 weeks.[198] In the fall, after their mother has shown them dens and feeding grounds, the juvenile group splits up.[199][200] While many females will stay close to the home range of their mother, males can sometimes move more than 20 km (12 mi) away.[201][202] This is considered aninstinctive behavior, preventinginbreeding.[203][204] However, mother and offspring may share a den during the first winter in cold areas.[200]
Life expectancy
Young Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) crossing a road
Captive raccoons have been known to live for more than 20 years.[84] However, the species' life expectancy in the wild is only 1.8 to 3.1 years, depending on the local conditions such as traffic volume, hunting, and weather severity.[205] It is not unusual for only half of the young born in one year to survive a full year.[188][206] After this point, the annual mortality rate drops to between 10% and 30%.[188] Young raccoons are vulnerable to losing their mother and to starvation, particularly in long and cold winters.[207] The most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population isdistemper, which can reachepidemic proportions and kill most of a local raccoon population.[208] In areas with heavy vehicular traffic and extensive hunting, these factors can account for up to 90% of all deaths of adult raccoons.[209] The most important naturalpredators of the raccoon arebobcats,coyotes, andgreat horned owls, the latter mainly preying on young raccoons but capable of killing adults in some cases.[210][211][212][213][214][215] InFlorida, they have been reported to fall victim to larger carnivores likeAmerican black bear andcougars and these species may also be a threat on occasion in other areas.[216][217][218] Where still present,gray wolves may still occasionally take raccoons as a supplemental prey item.[219][220] Also in the southeast, they are among the favored prey for adultAmerican alligators.[221][222] On occasion, bothbald andgolden eagles will prey on raccoons.[223][224] In the tropics, raccoons are known to fall prey to smaller eagles such asornate hawk-eagles andblack hawk-eagles, although it is not clear whether adults or merely juvenile raccoons are taken by these.[225][226] In rare cases of overlap, they may fall victim from carnivores ranging from species averaging smaller than themselves such asfishers to those as large and formidable asjaguars inMexico.[227][228] In their introduced range in the former Soviet Union, their main predators arewolves,lynxes andEurasian eagle-owls.[229] However, predation is not a significant cause of death, especially because larger predators have beenexterminated in many areas inhabited by raccoons.[230]
Range
Mississippi Delta raccoon (P. l. megaloudus) searching for food on a lake shore
Habitat
Although they have thrived in sparsely wooded areas in the last decades, raccoons depend on vertical structures to climb when they feel threatened.[231][232] Therefore, they avoid open terrain and areas with high concentrations ofbeech trees, as beechbark is too smooth to climb.[233]Tree hollows in oldoaks or other trees and rock crevices are preferred by raccoons as sleeping, winter, and litter dens. If such dens are unavailable or accessing them is inconvenient, raccoons useburrows dug by other mammals, denseundergrowth, or tree crotches.[234][235] In a study in theSolling range of hills in Germany, more than 60% of all sleeping places were used only once, but those used at least ten times accounted for about 70% of all uses.[236] Since amphibians,crustaceans, and other animals around the shore of lakes and rivers are an important part of the raccoon's diet, lowlanddeciduous ormixed forests abundant with water and marshes sustain the highest population densities.[237][238] While population densities range from 0.5 to 3.2 animals per square kilometer (1.3 to 8.3 animals per square mile) in prairies and do not usually exceed 6 animals per square kilometer (15.5 animals per square mile) in upland hardwood forests, more than 20 raccoons per square kilometer (51.8 animals per square mile) can live in lowland forests and marshes.[237][239]
Raccoons are common throughout North America from Canada toPanama, where the subspeciesProcyon lotor pumilus coexists with thecrab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus).[240][241] The population onHispaniola was exterminated as early as 1513 by Spanish colonists who hunted them for their meat.[242] Raccoons were also exterminated inCuba andJamaica, where the last sightings were reported in 1687.[243] TheBarbados raccoon became extinct relatively recently, in 1964. When they were still considered separate species, the Bahamas raccoon, Guadeloupe raccoon, and Tres Marias raccoon were classified asendangered by theIUCN in 1996.[244]
There is archeological evidence that inpre-Columbian times raccoons were numerous only along rivers and in the woodlands of theSoutheastern United States.[245] As raccoons were not mentioned in earlier reports ofpioneers exploring the central and north-central parts of the United States,[246] their initial spread may have begun a few decades before the 20th century. Since the 1950s, raccoons have expanded their range fromVancouver Island—formerly the northernmost limit of their range—far into the northern portions of the four south-central Canadian provinces.[247] New habitats which have recently been occupied by raccoons (aside from urban areas) include mountain ranges, such as theWestern Rocky Mountains, prairies, andcoastal marshes.[248] After a population explosion starting in the 1940s, the estimated number of raccoons in North America in the late 1980s was 15 to 20 times higher than in the 1930s, when raccoons were comparatively rare.[249]Urbanization, the expansion ofagriculture, deliberate introductions, and the extermination of natural predators of the raccoon have probably caused this increase in abundance and distribution.[250]
Distribution in Germany: Raccoons killed or found dead by hunters in the hunting years 2000–2001, 2001–2002 and 2002–2003 in the administrative districts of Germany
As a result of escapes and deliberateintroductions in the mid-20th century, the raccoon is now distributed in several European and Asian countries. Sightings have occurred in all the countries bordering Germany, which hosts the largest population outside of North America.[251] Another stable population exists in northern France, where several pet raccoons were released by members of theU.S. Air Force near theLaon-Couvron Air Base in 1966.[252] Furthermore, raccoons have been known to be in the area aroundMadrid since the early 1970s. In 2013, the city authorized "the capture and death of any specimen".[253] It is also present inItaly, with one self-sustaining population inLombardy.[254]
About 1,240 animals were released in nine regions of the formerSoviet Union between 1936 and 1958 to establish a population to be hunted for their fur. Two of these introductions were successful – one in the south ofBelarus between 1954 and 1958, and another inAzerbaijan between 1941 and 1957. With a seasonal harvest of between 1,000~1,500;animals, in 1974 the estimated size of the population distributed in theCaucasus region was around 20,000 animals, and the density was four animals per square kilometer (10 animals per square mile).[255]
Distribution in Japan
In Japan, up to 1,500 raccoons were imported as pets each year after the success of theanime seriesRascal the Raccoon (1977). In 2004, the descendants of discarded or escaped animals lived in 42 of 47 prefectures.[256][257][258] The range of raccoons in the wild in Japan grew from 17 prefectures in 2000 to all 47 prefectures in 2008.[259] It is estimated that raccoons cause thirty million yen (~$275,000) of agricultural damage onHokkaido alone.[260]
Distribution in Germany
In Germany – where the raccoon is called theWaschbär (literally, 'wash-bear' or 'washing bear') due to its habit of "dousing" food in water – two pairs of pet raccoons were released into the German countryside at theEdersee reservoir in the north ofHesse in April 1934 by a forester upon request of their owner, a poultry farmer.[261] He released them two weeks before receiving permission from thePrussian hunting office to "enrich thefauna".[262] Several prior attempts to introduce raccoons in Germany had been unsuccessful.[263][264] A second population was established in eastern Germany in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped from afur farm at Wolfshagen (today a district ofAltlandsberg), east of Berlin, after an air strike. The two populations are parasitologically distinguishable: 70% of the raccoons of the Hessian population are infected with theroundwormBaylisascaris procyonis, but none of theBrandenburgian population is known to have the parasite.[265] In the Hessian region, there were an estimated 285 raccoons in 1956, which increased to over 20,000 in 1970; in 2008, there were between 200,000 and 400,000 raccoons in the whole of Germany.[208][263] By 2012 it was estimated that Germany now had more than a million raccoons.[266]
The raccoon was once a protected species in Germany, but has been declared agame animal in 14 of the 16 German states since 1954.[267] Hunters andenvironmentalists argue the raccoon spreads uncontrollably, threatens protected bird species, and supersedes indigenous competitors.[90] This view is opposed by the zoologist Frank-Uwe Michler, who finds no evidence that a high population density of raccoons leads to negative effects on thebiodiversity of an area.[90] Hohmann holds that extensive hunting cannot be justified by the absence of natural predators, because predation is not a significant cause of death in the North American raccoon population.[268]
The raccoon is extensively hunted in Germany as it is seen as aninvasive species andpest.[269][270] In the 1990s, only about 400 raccoons were hunted yearly. This increased dramatically over the next quarter-century: during the 2015–2016 hunting season, 128,100 raccoons were hunted, 60 percent of them in the state ofHesse.[271]
Distribution in the former Soviet Union
Experiments in acclimatising raccoons into theSoviet Union began in 1936, and were repeated a further 25 times until 1962. Overall, 1,222 individuals were released, 64 of which came from zoos and fur farms (38 of them having been imports from Western Europe). The remainder originated from a population previously established inTranscaucasia. The range of Soviet raccoons was never single or continuous, as they were often introduced to different locations far from each other. All introductions into theRussian Far East failed; melanistic raccoons were released on Petrov Island nearVladivostok and some areas of southernPrimorsky Krai, but died. InCentral Asia, raccoons were released inKyrgyzstan'sJalal-Abad Province, though they were later recorded as "practically absent" there in January 1963. A large and stable raccoon population (yielding 1,000~1,500 catches a year) was established inAzerbaijan after an introduction to the area in 1937. Raccoons survived an introduction nearTerek, along theSulak River into theDagestani lowlands. Attempts to settle raccoons on theKuban River's left tributary andKabardino-Balkaria were unsuccessful. A successful acclimatization occurred inBelarus, where three introductions (consisting of 52, 37, and 38 individuals in 1954 and 1958) took place. By January 1963, 700 individuals were recorded in the country.[272]
Due to its adaptability, the raccoon has been able to useurban areas as a habitat. The first sightings were recorded in asuburb ofCincinnati in the 1920s. Since the 1950s, raccoons have been present inmetropolitan areas likeWashington, DC,Chicago,Toronto, andNew York City.[273][274] Since the 1960s,Kassel has hosted Europe's first and densest population in a large urban area, with about 50 to 150 animals per square kilometer (130 to 390 animals per square mile), a figure comparable to those of urban habitats in North America.[273][275] Home range sizes of urban raccoons are only 3 to 40 hectares (7.5 to 100 acres) for females and 8 to 80 hectares (20 to 200 acres) for males.[276] In small towns and suburbs, many raccoons sleep in a nearby forest after foraging in the settlement area.[273][277] Fruit and insects in gardens and leftovers in municipal waste are easily available food sources.[278] Furthermore, a large number of additional sleeping areas exist in these areas, such as hollows in old garden trees, cottages, garages, abandoned houses, and attics. The percentage of urban raccoons sleeping in abandoned or occupied houses varies from 15% in Washington, DC (1991) to 43% in Kassel (2003).[277][275]
Raccoons can carryrabies, a lethal disease caused by theneurotropic rabiesvirus carried in thesaliva and transmitted by bites. Its spread began in Florida andGeorgia in the 1950s and was facilitated by the introduction of infected individuals toVirginia and North Dakota in the late 1970s.[279] Of the 6,940 documented rabies cases reported in the United States in 2006, 2,615 (37.7%) were in raccoons.[280] TheU.S. Department of Agriculture, as well as local authorities in several U.S. states and Canadian provinces, has developed oralvaccination programs to fight the spread of the disease in endangered populations.[281][282][283] Only one human fatality has been reported after transmission of the rabies virus strain commonly known as "raccoon rabies".[284] Among the main symptoms for rabies in raccoons are a generally sickly appearance, impaired mobility, abnormal vocalization, andaggressiveness.[285] There may be no visible signs at all, however, and most individuals do not show the aggressive behavior seen in infected canids; rabid raccoons will often retire to their dens instead.[90][265][285] Organizations like theU.S. Forest Service encourage people to stay away from animals with unusual behavior or appearance, and to notify the proper authorities, such as ananimal control officer from the localhealth department.[286][287] Since healthy animals, especially nursing mothers, will occasionally forage during the day, daylight activity is not a reliable indicator of illness in raccoons.[150][151]
Unlike rabies and at least a dozen otherpathogens carried by raccoons,distemper, anepizootic virus, does not affect humans.[288][289] This disease is the most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population and affects individuals of all age groups.[208] For example, 94 of 145 raccoons died during an outbreak inClifton, Ohio in 1968.[290] It may occur along with a following inflammation of the brain (encephalitis), causing the animal to display rabies-like symptoms.[279] In Germany, the first eight cases of distemper were reported in 2007.[208]
A Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) in theEverglades approaches a group of humans, hoping to be fedAskunk and a California raccoon (P. l. psora) share cat food morsels in aHollywood, California backyardA sign inCatlettsburg, Kentucky advising that it is illegal to feed raccoons within that city
Raccoons have become notorious in urban areas for consuming food waste. They possess impressive problem-solving abilities and can break into all but the most secure food waste bins, which has earned them the derisive nickname "trash panda."[23] The presence of raccoons near humans may be undesirable, as raccoon droppings (like most wild animals) contain parasites and other disease vectors. Raccoon roundworm is of particular concern to public health. It can be contracted in humans by accidental ingestion or inhalation of the eggs, which are present in the feces of infected raccoons. While usually harmless to the host, it causes progressive neurological damage in humans and is eventually fatal if untreated. It is found in about 60% of adult raccoons. The general presence of raccoons in an area is not typically of concern, but nests or droppings found within or near structures should be destroyed. Roundworm eggs are very robust, andbleach alone is insufficient; burning or treatment with hot solutions ofsodium hydroxide is required. The keeping of raccoons as pets is illegal in some jurisdictions due to these risks.[296][297]
The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has resulted in diverse reactions in humans, ranging from outrage at their presence to deliberate feeding.[298] Some wildlife experts and most public authorities caution against feeding wild animals because they might become increasingly obtrusive and dependent on humans as a food source.[299] Other experts challenge such arguments and advise on feeding raccoons and other wildlife in their books.[300][301] Raccoons without a fear of humans are a concern to those who attribute this trait to rabies, but scientists point out this behavior is much more likely to be a behavioral adjustment to living in habitats with regular contact to humans for many generations.[265][302] Raccoons usually do not prey on domestic cats and dogs, but isolated cases of killings have been reported.[303] Attacks on pets may also target their owners.[304]
While overturned waste containers and raided fruit trees are just a nuisance to homeowners, it can cost several thousand dollars to repair damage caused by the use of attic space as dens.[305] Relocating or killing raccoons without a permit is forbidden in many urban areas on grounds ofanimal welfare. These methods usually only solve problems with particularly wild or aggressive individuals, since adequate dens are either known to several raccoons or will quickly be rediscovered.[187][287][306] Loud noises, flashing lights, and unpleasant odors have proven particularly effective in driving away a mother and her kits before they would normally leave the nesting place (when the kits are about eight weeks old).[287][307] Typically, though, only precautionary measures to restrict access tofood waste and den sites are effective in the long term.[287][308][309]
Among all fruits and crops cultivated in agricultural areas,sweet corn in its milk stage is particularly popular among raccoons.[310][311] In a two-year study byPurdue University researchers, published in 2004, raccoons were responsible for 87% of the damage to corn plants.[312] Like other predators, raccoons searching for food can break intopoultry houses to feed on chickens, ducks, their eggs, or food.[152][287][313]
Stylized raccoon skin as depicted on the Raccoon Priestsgorget found atSpiro Mounds
In themythology of theIndigenous peoples of the Americas, the raccoon is the subject offolk tales.[314] Stories such as "How raccoons catch so manycrayfish" from theTuscarora centered on its skills at foraging.[315] In other tales, the raccoon played the role of thetrickster, which outsmarts other animals, like coyotes and wolves.[316] Among others, theDakota believe the raccoon has natural spirit powers, since its mask resembles the facial paintings, two-fingered swashes of black and white, used duringrituals to connect to spirit beings.[317] TheAztecs linked supernatural abilities especially to females, whose commitment to their young was associated with the role of wise women in their society.[318]
The raccoon also appears in Native American art across a wide geographic range.Petroglyphs with engraved raccoon tracks were found in Lewis Canyon, Texas;[319] at the Crow Hollow petroglyph site inGrayson County, Kentucky;[320] and in river drainages nearTularosa, theSan Francisco River of New Mexico and Arizona.[321] The meaning and significance of theRaccoon Priests Gorget, which features a stylized carving of a raccoon and was found at theSpiro Mounds, Oklahoma, remains unknown.[322][323]
Hunting and fur trade
Automobile coat made out of raccoon fur (1906, U.S.)Pen with climbing facilities, hiding places, and a watering hole (lower-left-side)
The fur of raccoons is used for clothing, especially forcoats andcoonskin caps. At present, it is the material used for the inaccurately named "sealskin" cap worn by theRoyal Fusiliers ofGreat Britain.[324]Sporrans made of raccoon pelt and hide have sometimes been used as part of traditionalScottish highland men's apparel since the 18th century, especially in North America. Such sporrans may or may not be of the "full-mask" type.[325] Historically,Native American tribes not only used the fur for winter clothing, but also used the tails for ornament.[326] The famous Sioux leaderSpotted Tail took his name from a raccoon skin hat with the tail attached he acquired from a fur trader. Since the late 18th century, various types ofscent hounds, calledcoonhounds, which cantree animals have been bred in the United States.[327] In the 19th century, when coonskins occasionally even served as means of payment, several thousand raccoons were killed each year in the United States.[328][329] This number rose quickly whenautomobile coats became popular after the turn of the 20th century. In the 1920s, wearing araccoon coat was regarded as astatus symbol amongcollege students.[330] Attempts to breed raccoons in fur farms in the 1920s and 1930s in North America and Europe turned out not to be profitable, and farming was abandoned after prices for long-haired pelts dropped in the 1940s.[331][332] Although raccoons had become rare in the 1930s, at least 388,000 were killed during thehunting season of 1934–1935.[330][333]
After persistent population increases began in the 1940s, the seasonalcoon hunting harvest reached about one million animals in 1946–1947 and two million in 1962–1963.[334] The broadcast of three television episodes about thefrontiersmanDavy Crockett and the filmDavy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier in 1954 and 1955 led to a high demand forcoonskin caps in the United States, although it is unlikely either Crockett or the actor who played him,Fess Parker, actually wore a cap made from raccoon fur.[335] The seasonal hunt reached an all-time high with 5.2 million animals in 1976–1977 and ranged between 3.2 and 4.7 million for most of the 1980s. In 1982, the average pelt price was $20.[336] As of 1987, the raccoon was identified as the most important wild furbearer in North America in terms of revenue.[337] In the first half of the 1990s, the seasonal hunt dropped to 0.9 from 1.9 million due to decreasing pelt prices.[338]
Food
While primarily hunted for their fur, raccoons were also a source of food for Native Americans and early American settlers.[339][340] According toErnest Thompson Seton, young specimens killed without a fight are palatable, whereas old raccoons caught after a lengthy battle are inedible.[341] Raccoon meat was extensively eaten during the early years of California, where it was sold in the San Francisco market for $1–3 apiece.[342]American slaves occasionally ate raccoon atChristmas, but it was not necessarily a dish of the poor or rural. The first edition ofThe Joy of Cooking, released in 1931, contained a recipe for preparing raccoon, and US PresidentCalvin Coolidge's pet raccoonRebecca was originally sent to be served at theWhite HouseThanksgiving Dinner.[343][344][345]
Although the idea of eating raccoons may seem repulsive to most mainstream consumers, who see them as endearing, cute, orvermin, several thousand raccoons are still eaten each year in the United States, primarily in theSouthern United States.[346][347][348][349] Some people tout the taste of the meat.[350]
Other uses
In addition to the fur and meat, the raccoonbaculum (penis bone) have had numerous traditional uses in theSouthern United States and beyond. Indigenous people used the bones as apipe cleaning tool.[351] The bones were used bymoonshine distillers to guide the flow of whiskey from the drip tube to the bottle.[352] With their tips filed down, the bones were used astoothpicks under the moniker "coon rods".[a][353] Inhoodoo, the folk magic of the American South, the baculum is sometimes worn as an amulet for love or luck.[354] The bones also have decorative uses[355] (e.g. on the trademark hat of stock car racerRichard Petty or as earrings by actressesSarah Jessica Parker[354] andVanessa Williams[354]).
Pet raccoons
Raccoons are sometimes kept aspets, which is discouraged by many experts because the raccoon is not adomesticated species. Raccoons may act unpredictably and aggressively, and it is extremely difficult to teach them toobey commands.[356][357] In places where keeping raccoons as pets is not forbidden, such as in Wisconsin and other U.S. states, anexotic pet permit may be required.[358][359] One notable pet raccoon wasRebecca, kept by US presidentCalvin Coolidge.[360]
Their propensity for unruly behavior exceeds that ofcaptive skunks, and they are even less trustworthy when allowed to roam freely. Because of their intelligence and nimble forelimbs, even inexperienced raccoons are easily capable of unscrewing jars, uncorking bottles and opening door latches, with more experienced specimens having been recorded to open door knobs.[129] Sexually mature raccoons often show aggressive natural behaviors such as biting during the mating season.[356][361]Neutering them at around five or six months of age decreases the chances of aggressive behavior developing.[362] Raccoons can becomeobese and suffer from other disorders due to poor diet and lack of exercise.[363] When fed withcat food over a long time period, raccoons can developgout.[364] With respect to the research results regarding their social behavior, it is now required by law in Austria and Germany to keep at least two individuals to prevent loneliness.[365][366] Raccoons are usually kept in apen (indoor or outdoor), also a legal requirement in Austria and Germany, rather than in the apartment where their naturalcuriosity may result in damage to property.[365][366][356][367][368]
When orphaned, it is possible for kits to berehabilitated andreintroduced to the wild. However, it is uncertain whether they readapt well to life in the wild.[369] Feeding unweaned kits withcow's milk rather than a kitten replacement milk or a similar product can be dangerous to their health.[356][370]
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^Silverstein, M. A.; Salgado, C. D.; Bassin, S.; Bleck, T. P.; Lopes, M. B.; Farr, B. M.; Jenkins, S. R.; Sockwell, D. C.; Marr, J. S.; Miller, G. B. (November 14, 2003)."First Human Death Associated with Raccoon Rabies".Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.52 (45):1102–1103.PMID14614408. RetrievedDecember 7, 2008.
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^MacGowan, Brian J.; Humberg, Lee A.; Beasley, James C.; DeVault, Travis L.; Retamosa, Monica I.; Rhodes Jr., Olin E. (June 2006)."Corn and Soybean Crop Depredation by Wildlife"(PDF).Purdue Extension. Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University: 6. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on December 16, 2008. RetrievedDecember 17, 2008.
^The Red Panda, Olingos, Coatis, Raccoons, and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Procyonids and Ailurids By A. R. Glatston, IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid & Procyonid Specialist Group Edition: illustrated Published by IUCN, 1994, p. 9ISBN2-8317-0046-9,978-2-8317-0046-5
^The Red Panda, Olingos, Coatis, Raccoons, and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Procyonids and Ailurids By A. R. Glatston, IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid & Procyonid Specialist Group Published by IUCN, 1994, p. 9
^"Raccoon".Nebraska Wildlife Species Guide. Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. Archived fromthe original on October 23, 2008. RetrievedDecember 7, 2008.
^abcJoanne O'Sullivan (March 1, 2010).Book of Superstitious Stuff: Weird Happenings, Wacky Rites, Frightening Fears, Mysterious Myths & Other Bizarre Beliefs. Charlesbridge Publishing. p. 87.ISBN978-1-60734-367-7.Archived from the original on December 29, 2015. RetrievedOctober 27, 2015.In the hoodoo (folk magic) tradition of the American South, a raccoon penis bone (scientifically known as the baculum) is a lucky charm used to attract love. In some areas, it's boiled to remove any trace of the animal, and then tied to a red ribbon and worn as a necklace. In other areas, the bones were traditionally given to girls and young women by suitors, and in still other places, the charms are worn by men. Earrings made fromcast raccoon penis bones became a fad in 2004, and celebrities such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Vanessa Williams were photographed wearing them. New Orleans gamblers are said to use the bones (also called coon dogs and Texas toothpicks) for luck.
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^Dictionary of Louisiana French: As Spoken in Cajun, Creole, and American Indian Communities. University Press of Mississippi (published November 12, 2009). 2010. p. 121.ISBN978-1-60473-403-4.
Bartussek, Ingo (2004).Die Waschbären kommen (in German). Niedenstein, Germany: Cognitio.ISBN978-3-932583-10-0.
Goldman, Edward A.; Jackson, Hartley H.T. (1950).Raccoons of North and Middle America. North American Fauna. Vol. 60. Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service – via Internet Archive.
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