Comedy originated inancient Greece: inAthenian democracy, thepublic opinion of voters was influenced bypolitical satire performed bycomic poets intheaters.[1] The theatrical genre ofGreek comedy can be described as a dramatic performance pitting two groups, ages, genders, or societies against each other in an amusingagon or conflict.Northrop Frye depicted these two opposing sides as a "Society of Youth" and a "Society of the Old".[2] A revised view characterizes the essential agon of comedy as a struggle between a relatively powerless youth and the societal conventions posing obstacles to his hopes. In this struggle, the youth then becomes constrained by his lack of social authority, and is left with little choice but to resort to ruses which engender dramaticirony, which provokes laughter.[3]
Varieties
Satire and political satire use comedy to portray people or social institutions as ridiculous or corrupt, thus alienating their audience from the object of their humor.Parody subverts popular genres and forms, critiquing those forms without necessarily condemning them.
Other forms of comedy includescrewball comedy, which derives its humor largely from bizarre, surprising (and improbable) situations or characters, andblack comedy, which is characterized by a form of humor that includes darker aspects of human behavior or human nature. Similarlyscatological humor, sexual humor, andrace humor create comedy by violatingsocial conventions ortaboos in comic ways, which can often be taken as offensive by the subjects of the joke. Acomedy of manners typically takes as its subject a particular part of society (usually upper-class society) and uses humor to parody or satirize the behavior and mannerisms of its members.Romantic comedy is a popular genre that depicts burgeoning romance in humorous terms and focuses on the foibles of those who are falling in love.
Dean Rubin says the word "comedy" is derived from theClassical Greek κωμῳδίαkōmōidía, which is a compound ofκῶμοςkômos "revel" and ᾠδήōidḗ "singing, ode".[4]
The adjective "comic" (Greek κωμικόςkōmikós), which strictly means that which relates to comedy is, in modern usage, generally confined to the sense of "laughter-provoking".[5] Of this, the word came into modern usage through the Latincomoedia and Italiancommedia and has, over time, passed through various shades of meaning.[6]
TheGreeks andRomans confined their use of theword "comedy" to descriptions of stage-plays with happy endings.Aristotle defined comedy as an imitation of men worse than the average (wheretragedy was an imitation of men better than the average). However, the characters portrayed in comedies were not worse than average in every way, only insofar as they are Ridiculous, which is a species of the Ugly. The Ridiculous may be defined as a mistake or deformity not productive of pain or harm to others; the mask, for instance, that excites laughter is something ugly and distorted without causing pain.[7] In theMiddle Ages, the term expanded to include narrative poems with happy endings. It is in this sense thatDante used the term in the title of his poem,La Commedia.
As time progressed, the word came more and more to be associated with any sort of performance intended to cause laughter.[6] During the Middle Ages, the term "comedy" became synonymous withsatire, and later withhumour in general.
Aristotle'sPoetics was translated intoArabic in themedieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon byArabic writers andIslamic philosophers, such asAbu Bishr, and his pupilsAl-Farabi,Avicenna, andAverroes. They disassociated comedy fromGreek dramatic representation and instead identified it withArabic poetic themes and forms, such ashija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or to the troubling beginnings and happy endings associated with classical Greek comedy.
In the late 20th century, many scholars preferred to use the termlaughter to refer to the wholegamut of the comic, in order to avoid the use of ambiguous and problematically defined genres such as thegrotesque,irony, andsatire.[9][10]
Starting from 425 BCE,Aristophanes, a comic play and satirical author of theAncient Greek theater, wrote 40 comedies, 11 of which survive. Aristophanes developed his type of comedy from the earliersatyr plays, which were often highlyobscene.[11] The only surviving examples of the satyr plays are byEuripides, which are much later examples and not representative of the genre.[12] In ancient Greece, comedy originated in bawdy andribald songs or recitations apropos ofphallic processions and fertility festivals or gatherings.[13]
Around 335 BCE,Aristotle, in his workPoetics, stated that comedy originated inphallic processions and the light treatment of the otherwise base and ugly. He also adds that the origins of comedy are obscure because it was not treated seriously from its inception.[14] However, comedy had its ownMuse:Thalia.[citation needed]
Aristotle taught that comedy was generally positive for society, since it brings forth happiness, which forAristotle was the ideal state, the final goal in any activity. For Aristotle, a comedy did not need to involve sexual humor. A comedy is about the fortunate rise of a sympathetic character. Aristotle divides comedy into three categories or subgenres:farce,romantic comedy, andsatire. On the other hand,Plato taught that comedy is a destruction to the self. He believed that it produces an emotion that overrides rational self-control and learning. InThe Republic, he says that the guardians of the state should avoid laughter, "for ordinarily when one abandons himself to violent laughter, his condition provokes a violent reaction." Plato says comedy should be tightly controlled if one wants to achieve the ideal state.
Also inPoetics, Aristotle defined comedy as one of the original four genres ofliterature. The other three genres aretragedy,epic poetry, andlyric poetry. Literature, in general, is defined by Aristotle as amimesis, or imitation of life. Comedy is the third form of literature, being the most divorced from a true mimesis. Tragedy is the truest mimesis, followed by epic poetry, comedy, and lyric poetry. The genre of comedy is defined by a certain pattern according to Aristotle's definition. Comedies begin with low or base characters seeking insignificant aims and end with some accomplishment of the aims which either lightens the initial baseness or reveals the insignificance of the aims.
Commedia dell'arte and Shakespearean, Elizabethan comedy
"Comedy", in itsElizabethan usage, had a very different meaning from modern comedy. A Shakespearean comedy is one that has a happy ending, usually involving marriages between the unmarried characters, and a tone and style that is more light-hearted than Shakespeare's other plays.[15]
ThePunch and Judy show has roots in the 16th-century Italiancommedia dell'arte. The figure of Punch derives from the Neapolitan stock character ofPulcinella.[16] The figure who later became Mr. Punch made his first recorded appearance in England in 1662.[17] Punch and Judy are performed in the spirit of outrageous comedy — often provoking shocked laughter — and are dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch.[18] Appearing at a significant period in British history, professor Glyn Edwards states: "[Pulcinella] went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years ofPuritanism. We soon changed Punch's name, transformed him from a marionette to a hand puppet, and he became, really, a spirit of Britain — a subversive maverick who defies authority, a kind of puppet equivalent to ourpolitical cartoons."[17]
In early 19th century England,pantomime acquired its present form which includes slapstick comedy and featured the first mainstream clownJoseph Grimaldi, while comedy routines also featured heavily in Britishmusic hall theatre which became popular in the 1850s.[19] Britishcomedians who honed their skills in music hall sketches includeCharlie Chaplin,Stan Laurel andDan Leno.[20] English music hall comedian and theatre impresarioFred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were among the comedians who worked for his company.[20] Karno was a pioneer ofslapstick, and in his biography, Laurel stated, "Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it".[21] Film producerHal Roach stated: "Fred Karno is not only a genius, he is the man who originated slapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him."[22] Americanvaudeville emerged in the 1880s and remained popular until the 1930s, and featured comedians such asW. C. Fields,Buster Keaton and theMarx Brothers.
Surreal humour (also known as 'absurdist humour'), or 'surreal comedy', is a form ofhumour predicated on deliberate violations ofcausal reasoning, producing events and behaviours that are obviouslyillogical. Constructions of surreal humour tend to involve bizarre juxtapositions, incongruity,non-sequiturs, irrational or absurd situations and expressions ofnonsense.[23] The humour arises from a subversion of audience's expectations, so that amusement is founded onunpredictability, separate from a logical analysis of the situation. The humour derived gets its appeal from the ridiculousness and unlikeliness of the situation. The genre has roots inSurrealism in the arts.[23]
Edward Lear, Aged 73 and a Half and His Cat Foss, Aged 16, an 1885 lithograph byEdward Lear
Surreal humour is the effect ofillogic andabsurdity being used for humorous effect. Under such premises, people can identify precursors and early examples of surreal humour at least since the 19th century, such asLewis Carroll'sAlice's Adventures in Wonderland andThrough the Looking-Glass, which both use illogic and absurdity (hookah-smokingcaterpillars,croquet matches using liveflamingos as mallets, etc.) for humorous effect. Many ofEdward Lear's children stories and poems containnonsense and are basically surreal in approach. For example,The Story of the Four Little Children Who Went Round the World (1871) is filled with contradictory statements and odd images intended to provoke amusement, such as the following:
After a time they saw some land at a distance; and when they came to it, they found it was an island made of water quite surrounded by earth. Besides that, it was bordered by evanescent isthmuses with a great Gulf-stream running about all over it, so that it was perfectly beautiful, and contained only a single tree, 503 feet high.[24]
In the early 20th century, severalavant-garde movements, including thedadaists,surrealists, andfuturists, began to argue for an art that was random, jarring and illogical.[25] The goals of these movements were in some sense serious, and they were committed to undermining the solemnity and self-satisfaction of the contemporary artisticestablishment. As a result, much of their art was intentionally amusing.
A famous example isMarcel Duchamp'sFountain (1917), an inverted urinal signed "R. Mutt". This became one of the most famous and influential pieces of art in history, and one of the earliest examples of thefound object movement. It is also a joke, relying on the inversion of the item's function as expressed by its title as well as its incongruous presence in an art exhibition.[26]
American television has also been an influential force in world comedy: with American series likeM*A*S*H,Seinfeld andThe Simpsons achieving large followings around the world. British television comedy also remains influential, with quintessential works includingFawlty Towers,Monty Python,Dad's Army,Blackadder, andThe Office. Australian satiristBarry Humphries, whose comic creations include the housewife and "gigastar" DameEdna Everage, for his delivery of Dadaist andabsurdist humour to millions, was described by biographer Anne Pender in 2010 as not only "the most significant theatrical figure of our time ... [but] the most significant comedian to emerge sinceCharlie Chaplin".[27]
By 200 BC,[28] in ancientSanskrit drama,Bharata Muni'sNatya Shastra defined humour (hāsyam) as one of the ninenava rasas, or principlerasas (emotional responses), which can be inspired in the audience bybhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform. Eachrasa was associated with a specificbhavas portrayed on stage. In the case of humour, it was associated with mirth (hasya).
The phenomena connected withlaughter and that which provokes it have been carefully investigated by psychologists. They agree the predominant characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thusThomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a "sudden glory". Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the "play instinct" and its emotional expression.
George Meredith said that "One excellent test of the civilization of a country ... I take to be the flourishing of the Comic idea and Comedy, and the test of true Comedy is that it shall awaken thoughtful laughter." Laughter is said to be the cure for being sick. Studies show that people who laugh more often get sick less.[29][30]
American literary theoristKenneth Burke writes that the "comic frame" in rhetoric is "neither wholly euphemistic, nor wholly debunking—hence it provides the charitable attitude towards people that is required for purposes of persuasion and co-operation, but at the same time maintains our shrewdness concerning the simplicities of 'cashing in.'"[31] The purpose of the comic frame is to satirize a given circumstance and promote change by doing so. The comic frame makes fun of situations and people, while simultaneously provoking thought.[32] The comic frame does not aim to vilify in its analysis, but rather, rebuke the stupidity and foolery of those involved in the circumstances.[33] For example, onThe Daily Show,Jon Stewart uses the "comic frame" to intervene in political arguments, often offering crude humor in sudden contrast to serious news. In a segment onPresident Obama's trip to China, Stewart remarks on America's debt to the Chinese government while also having a weak relationship with the country. After depicting this dismal situation, Stewart shifts to speak directly to President Obama, calling upon him to "shine that turd up."[34] For Stewart and his audience, introducing coarse language into what is otherwise a serious commentary on the state of foreign relations serves to frame the segment comically, creating a serious tone underlying the comedic agenda presented by Stewart.
Comedy may be divided into multiplegenres based on the source of humor, the method of delivery, and the context in which it is delivered. The different forms of comedy often overlap, and most comedy can fit into multiple genres. Some of the subgenres of comedy arefarce,comedy of manners,burlesque, andsatire.
Some comedy apes certain cultural forms: for instance, parody andsatire often imitate the conventions of the genre they are parodying or satirizing. For example, in the United States, parodies of newspapers and television news includeThe Onion, andThe Colbert Report; in Australia, shows such asKath & Kim,Utopia, andShaun Micallef's Mad As Hell perform the same role.
Self-deprecation is a technique of comedy used by many comedians who focus on their misfortunes and foibles in order to entertain.
Stand-up comedy is a mode of comic performance in which the performer addresses the audience directly, usually speaking in their own person rather than as a dramaticcharacter.
^Henderson, J. (1993)Comic Hero versus Political Elite pp. 307–19 inSommerstein, A.H.; S. Halliwell; J. Henderson; B. Zimmerman, eds. (1993).Tragedy, Comedy and the Polis. Bari: Levante Editori.
The deliberate use by Menard of the term 'le rire' rather than 'l'humour' reflects accurately the current evidency to incorporate all instances of the comic in the analysis, while the classification in genres and fields such as grotesque, humour and even irony or satire always poses problems. The terms humour and laughter are therefore pragmatically used in recent historiography to cover the entire spectrum.
^Ménard, Philippe (1988)Le rire et le sourire au Moyen Age dans la littérature et les arts. Essai de problématique in Bouché, T. and Charpentier H. (eds., 1988)Le rire au Moyen Âge, Actes du colloque international de Bordeaux, pp. 7–30
^Aristophanes (1996)Lysistrata, Introduction, p.ix, published by Nick Hern Books
^Buelens, Geert; Hendrix, Harald; Jansen, Monica, eds. (2012).The History of Futurism: The Precursors, Protagonists, and Legacies. Lexington Books.ISBN978-0-7391-7387-9.
_Mytilene_3cAD.jpg)
