Colombo (/kəˈlʌmboʊ/kə-LUM-boh;[2]Sinhala:කොළඹ,romanised: Koḷam̆ba,IPA:[ˈkoləᵐbə];Tamil:கொழும்பு,romanised: Koḻumpu,IPA:[koɻumbɯ]) is the executive and judicialcapital[3] and largest city ofSri Lanka by population. The Colombo metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of 5.6 million,[4][5][6][7] and 752,993[1] within the municipal limits. It is the financial centre of the island and a tourist destination.[8] It is located on the west coast of the island and adjacent to theGreater Colombo area which includesSri Jayawardenepura Kotte, the legislative capital of Sri Lanka, andDehiwala-Mount Lavinia. Colombo is often referred to as the capital since Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is situated within the Colombo metro area. It is also the administrative capital of theWestern Province and the district capital ofColombo District. Colombo is a busy and vibrant city with a mixture of modern life, colonial buildings and monuments.[9]
It was made the capital of the island when Sri Lanka was ceded to theBritish Empire in 1815,[10] retaining its capital status when Sri Lanka gainedindependence in 1948. In 1978, when administrative functions were moved toSri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Colombo was designated as the commercial capital of Sri Lanka.
The name 'Colombo', first introduced by thePortuguese explorers in 1505, is believed to be derived from the classicalSinhala nameකොලොන් තොට,கொல்லம் துறைமுகம்Kolon thota, meaning "port on the riverKelani".[11]
Another belief is that the name is derived from the Sinhala nameකොල-අඹ-තොට,பெருங்குடல் துறைமுகம்Kola-amba-thota which means 'Harbour with leafy/green mango trees'.[12]
The author of the oldest Sinhala grammar,Sidatsangarava, written in the 13th century wrote about a category of words that exclusively belonged to early Sinhala. It listsnaramba (to see) andkolamba (fort or harbour) as deriving from the indigenousVedda language.Kolamba may also be the source of the name of the commercial capital Colombo.[13][14]
TravellerIbn Battuta who visited the island in the 14th century, referred to it asKalanpu.[15] Arabs, whose primary interests were trade, began to settle in Colombo around the eighth century AD mostly because the port helped their business by the way of controlling much of the trade between theSinhalese kingdoms and the outside world. It was popularly believed that their descendants comprised the localSri Lankan Moor community, but their genetics are predominantly South Indian.[10][16]
Portuguese explorers led by DomLourenço de Almeida first arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505. During their initial visit they made a treaty with the King ofKotte,Parakramabahu VIII (1484–1518), which enabled them to trade in the island's crop ofcinnamon, which lay along with the coastal areas of the island, including in Colombo. As part of the treaty, the Portuguese were given full authority over the coastline in exchange for the promise of guarding the coast against invaders. They were allowed to establish atrading post in Colombo.[17] Within a short time, however, they expelled theMuslim inhabitants of Colombo and began to build afort in 1517.
The Portuguese soon realised that control of Sri Lanka was necessary for the protection of their coastal establishments in India, and they began to manipulate the rulers of the Kotte kingdom to gain control of the area. After skilfully exploiting rivalries within the royal family, they took control of a large area of the kingdom and the Sinhalese King Mayadunne established a new kingdom at Sitawaka, a domain in the Kotte kingdom.[17] Before long he annexed much of the Kotte kingdom and forced the Portuguese to retreat to Colombo, which was repeatedly besieged by Mayadunne and the later kings of Sitawaka, forcing them to seek reinforcement from their major base inGoa, India. Following the fall of the kingdom in 1593, the Portuguese were able to establish complete control over the coastal area, with Colombo as their capital.[17][18] This part of Colombo is still known asFort and houses the presidential palace and the majority of Colombo'sfive star hotels. The area immediately outside Fort is known asPettah (Sinhala:පිට කොටුව,Tamil:புறக் கோட்டைpiṭa koṭuva, "outer fort") and is a commercial hub.
In 1638 theDutch signed a treaty with King Rajasinha II of Kandy which assured the king assistance in his war against the Portuguese in exchange for a monopoly of the island's major trade goods. The Portuguese resisted the Dutch and the Kandyans but were gradually defeated in their strongholds beginning in 1639.[19] The Dutch captured Colombo in 1656 after an epic siege, at the end of which a mere 93 Portuguese survivors were givensafe conduct out of the fort. Although the Dutch (e.g.,Rijcklof van Goens) initially restored the captured area back to the Sinhalese kings, they later refused to turn them over and gained control over the island's richest cinnamon lands including Colombo which then served as the capital of the Dutch maritime provinces under the control of theDutch East India Company until 1796.[19][20]
Although the British captured Colombo in 1796, it remained aBritish military outpost until the Kandyan Kingdom was ceded to them in 1815 and they made Colombo the capital of their newly createdcrown colony ofBritish Ceylon. Unlike the Portuguese and Dutch before them, whose primary use of Colombo was as a military fort, the British began constructing houses and other civilian structures around the fort, giving rise to the current City of Colombo.[10]
Initially, they placed the administration of the city under a "Collector", and John Macdowell of theMadras Service was the first to hold the office. Then, in 1833, theGovernment Agent of the Western Province was charged with the administration of the city. Centuries ofcolonial rule had meant a decline of indigenous administration of Colombo and in 1865 the British conceived a Municipal Council as a means of training the local population inself-governance. TheLegislative Council of Ceylon constituted the Colombo Municipal Council in 1865 and the Council met for the first time on 16 January 1866. At the time, the population of the region was around 80,000.[10]
During the time they were in control of Colombo, the British were responsible for much of the planning of the present city. In some parts of the city,tram car tracks and granite flooring laid during the era are still visible today.[20][21]
This era of colonialism ended peacefully in 1948 when Ceylon gained independence from Britain. Due to the tremendous impact this caused on the city's inhabitants and on the country as a whole, the changes that resulted at the end of the colonial period were drastic. An entire new culture took root. Changes in laws and customs, clothing styles, religions andproper names were a significant result of the colonial era. These cultural changes were followed by the strengthening of the island's economy. Even today, the influence of the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British is visible in Colombo's architecture, names, clothing, food, language and attitudes. Buildings from all three eras stand as reminders of the turbulent past of Colombo. The city and its people show an interesting mix of European clothing and lifestyles together with local customs.[22]
Although Colombo lost its status as the capital of Sri Lanka in the 1980s to Sri Jayawardanapura, it continues to be the island's commercial centre. Despite the official capital of Sri Lanka moving to the adjacent Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte, most countries still maintain theirdiplomatic missions in Colombo.[24]
The geography of Colombo consists of both land and water. The city has many canals and, in the heart of the city, the 65-hectare (160-acre)Beira Lake. The lake is one of the most distinctive landmarks of Colombo and was used for centuries by colonists to defend the city.[25] It remains a tourist attraction, hostingregattas,[26] andtheatrical events on its shores. The northern and north-eastern border of the city of Colombo is formed by theKelani River, which meets the sea in a part of the city known as the Modera (mōdara in Sinhala) which meansriver delta.
Colombo features atropical rainforest climate (Af). Colombo's climate is hot throughout the year. From March to April the average high temperature is around 31 °C (87.8 °F).[27] The only major change in the Colombo weather occurs during themonsoon seasons from April to June and September to November, when heavy rains occur. Colombo sees little relative diurnal range of temperature, although this is more marked in the drier winter months, where minimum temperatures average 22 °C (71.6 °F). Rainfall in the city averages around 2,500 millimetres (98 in) a year.[28]
Climate data for Colombo, Sri Lanka (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–2020)
TheSeema Malakaya of the Gangarama Temple in theBeira Lake in theCompany Roads area is one of many religious structures in ColomboA picture of Colombo's skyline from Port City, showing theLotus Tower in the background, The tallest building structure of the country and also the 19th tallest tower in the world.
Galle Face Green is located in the heart of the city along the Indian Ocean coast and is a destination for tourists and residents alike. TheGalle Face Hotel is a historic landmark on the southern edge of this promenade.
Gangaramaya Temple is one of the most important temples in Colombo. The temple's architecture demonstrates an eclectic mix of Sri Lankan, Thai, Indian and Chinese architecture.[32]
Colombo is a multi-religious, multi-ethnic and multi-cultural city. The population of Colombo is a mix of numerous ethnic groups, mainlySinhalese,Sri Lankan Moor andSri Lankan Tamils, . There are also small communities of people withChinese,Portuguese Burgher,Dutch Burgher,Malay andIndian origins living in the city, as well as numerous European expatriates. Colombo is the most populous city in Sri Lanka, with 642,163 people living within the city limits.[34] In 1866 the city had a population of around 80,000.[35]
Colombo is acharter city, with amayor-council government.[37] The mayor and council members are elected through local government elections held once in five years. For the past 50 years the city had been ruled by theUnited National Party (UNP), aright leaning party, whose business-friendly policies resonate with the population of Colombo. However, the UNP nomination list for the 2006 Municipal elections was rejected,[38] and an Independent Group supported by the UNP won the elections.[39]Uvais Mohamed Imitiyas was subsequently appointed Mayor of Colombo.[40]
Colombo was the capital of the coastal areas controlled by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British from the 1700s to 1815 when the British gained control of the entire island following theKandyan convention. From then until the 1980s the national capital of the island was Colombo.
During the 1980s plans were made to move the administrative capital toSri Jayawardenepura Kotte and thus move all governmental institutions out of Colombo to make way for commercial activities. As a primary step, theParliament was moved to a new complex in Kotte, with several ministries and departments also relocated. However, the move was never completed.
Colombo is divided into 15 numbered areas for the purposes of postal services. Within these areas are the suburbs with their corresponding post office.
Map of Colombo showing its administrative districts.
Colombo City is the hub of Sri Lanka's economic activity
The great majority of Sri Lankan corporations have their head offices in Colombo includingAitken Spence,Ceylinco Corporation, Stassen group of companies,John Keells Holdings,Cargills, Hemas Holdings, SenzMate and Akbar Brothers. Some of the industries include chemicals, textiles, glass, cement, leather goods, furniture and jewellery. In the city centre is theWorld Trade Centre. The 40-storyTwin Tower complex is the centre of important commercial establishments, in the Fort district, the city's nerve centre. Right outside the Fort area is Pettah which is derived from the Sinhala wordpita which means 'out' or 'outside'.[44]
The Colombo Metropolitan area has a GDP (PPP) of $122 billion or 40% of the GDP, making it the most important aspect of the Sri Lankan economy.[citation needed] The per capita income of the Colombo Metro area stood at US$8623 and purchasing power per capita of $25,117, making it one of the most prosperous regions in South Asia.[45] The Colombo Metropolitan (CM) area is the most important industrial, commercial and administrative centre in Sri Lanka. A major share of the country's export-oriented manufacturing takes place in the CM area, which is the engine of growth for Sri Lanka.
Galle Face Green, where many major events take place, is a favourite location for many. It is in close proximity to many of the major hotels. Formerly, it was the site of the city's racecourse, golf course and the cricket field
The Western province contributes less than 40% to the GDP and about 80% of industrial value additions although it accounts for only 5.7% of the country's geographic area and 25% of the national population. Given its importance as the primary international gateway for Sri Lanka and as the main economic driver of the country, the government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) has launched an ambitious program to transform Colombo and its area into a metropolis of international standards. Bottlenecks are preventing the Colombo metropolitan area from realizing its full economic potential. To facilitate the transformation of Colombo, the government has to address these bottlenecks which have for long been obstructing economic and physical urban regeneration.[46]
Pettah is more crowded than the Fort area. Pettah's roads are always packed andpavements are full of small stalls selling items from delicioussharbat toshirts. Main Street consists mostly of clothes shops and the crossroads, which are known as Cross-Streets where each of the five streets specialises in a specific business. For example, First Cross Street is mostlyelectronic goods shops, the Secondcellular phones and fancy goods. Most of these businesses are dominated by Muslim traders. At the end of Main Street further away from Fort is Sea Street – Sri Lanka's gold market – dominated by Tamil interests. This mile-long street is full of jewellery shops,[44] including the former head office ofSriLankan Airlines.[47]
TheSri Lanka Police, the main law enforcement agency of the island, liaise with the municipal council but is under the control of theMinistry of Defence of the central government.[48] Policing in Colombo and its suburbs falls within theMetropolitan Range headed by the Deputy Inspector General of Police (Metropolitan), this also includes the Colombo Crime Division.[49] As with most Sri Lankan cities, the magistrate court handles felony crimes while the district court handles civil cases.
As in other large cities around the world, Colombo experiences certain levels ofstreet crime andbribery. Indeed, the corruption extends to the very top, US reports show. In addition, in the period from the 1980s to 2009, there have been a number of major terrorist attacks.[50][51] TheLTTE has been linked to most of the bombings and assassinations in the city.[52]Welikada Prison is situated in Colombo and it is one of the largest maximum-security prisons in the country.[53]
Colombo has most of the amenities that a modern city has. Compared to other parts of the country, Colombo has the highest degree of infrastructure. Electricity, water and transport to street lights and phone booths are to a considerably good standard. Apart from that, many luxurious hotels, clubs and restaurants are in the city. In recent times there has been an outpour ofhigh-rise condominiums, mainly due to the very high land prices.[54]
Colombo Harbour is the largest and one of the busiestports in Sri Lanka. Colombo was established primarily as a port city during the colonial era, with an artificial harbour that has been expanded over the years. TheSri Lanka Navy maintains anaval base,SLNS Rangalla, within the harbour.
The Port of Colombo handled 3.75 milliontwenty-foot equivalent units in 2008, 10.6% up on 2007 (which itself was 9.7% up on 2006), bucking the global economic trend. Of those, 817,000 were local shipments with the rest transshipments. With a capacity of 5.7 million TEUs and a dredged depth of over 15 m (49 ft), the Colombo Harbour is one of the busiest ports in the world and ranks among the top 25 ports (23rd). Sri Lanka's Port of Colombo is said to be the busiest, largest port in the Indian Ocean.[55]
Colombo has an extensive public transport system based on buses operated both by private operators and the government-ownedSri Lanka Transport Board (SLTB). The three primary bus terminals – Bastian Mawatha, Central and the Gunasinghapura Bus Terminals – are in Pettah.[61] Bastian Mawatha handles long-distance services whereas Gunasinghapura and Central handle local services.
Train transportin the city is limited since most trains are meant for transport to and from the city rather than within it and are often overcrowded. However, the Central Bus Stand andFort Railway Station function as the island's primary hub for bus and rail transport respectively. Up until the 1970s, the city hadtram services, which were discontinued. Other means of transport includeauto rickshaws (commonly called "three-wheelers") andtaxicabs. Three-wheelers are entirely operated by individuals and hardly regulated whilst cab services are run by private companies and are metered.
Post-war development in the Colombo area also involves the construction of numerous expressway grade arterial road routes. The first of these constructed is theSouthern Expressway, which goes fromKottawa, a southern suburb of Colombo, toMatara City in the south of the country. Expressways constructed in the Colombo metropolitan area include theColombo–Katunayake Expressway, which was opened in October 2013 and the Colombo orbital bypass Outer Circular Highway (Arthur C. Clarke Expressway). TheColombo-Katunayake Expressway (E03) runs fromPeliyagoda, a northern suburb of Colombo, toColombo International Airport and it is linked with one of the major commercial hubs and a major tourist destination of the country, the city ofNegombo.[62][63]
An international ferry liner, theScotia Prince, is conducting a ferry service toTuticorin, India. Ferry services between the two countries have been revived after more than 20 years.[64]
Ratmalana Airport is the city's airport, located 15 km (9.3 mi) south of the city centre. It commenced operating in 1935 and was the country's first international airport until it was replaced byBandaranaike Airport in 1967. Ratmalana Airport now primarily services domestic flights, aviation training and international corporate flights.
The twoWorld Trade Centre towers used to be the most recognised landmarks of the city. Before they were completed in 1997, the adjacentBank of Ceylon tower was the tallest structure and the most prominent city landmark. Before the skyscrapers were built, the Old Parliament Building that stood in the Fort district with theOld Colombo Lighthouse close to it used to be the tallest building. Another important landmark is theIndependence Hall at Independence Square in Cinnamon Gardens.
Another landmark is St.Paul's ChurchMilagiriya, one of the oldestchurches in Sri Lanka, first built by the Portuguese and rebuilt by the British in 1848. The Cargills & Millers building in Fort is also a protected building of historical significance.
Cannons that were once mounted on the rampart of the old fort of Colombo were laid out for observance and prestige at the Green. The colonial styledGalle Face Hotel, known as Asia's Emerald on the Green since 1864, is adjacent to Galle Face Green. The hotel has played host to guests such as theBritish royal family and otherroyal guests and celebrities. After a stay at the hotel,Princess Alexandra of Denmark commented that "the peacefulness and generosity encountered at theGalle Face Hotel cannot be matched."[65] Also facing Galle Face Green is theCeylon Inter-Continental Hotel.
Education institutions in Colombo have a long history. Colombo has many of the prominentpublic schools in the country, some of them government-owned and others private. Most of the prominent schools in the city date back to the 1800s when they were established during the British colonial rule,[66] such as theRoyal College Colombo established in 1835. Certain urban schools of Sri Lanka have some religious alignment; this is partly due to the influence of the British, who established Christian missionary schools.[67][68] These include theAnglican,Bishop's College(1875); theMethodist,Wesley College Colombo (1874); theBuddhist,Ananda College (1886); theMuslim,Zahira College (1892); theCatholic,St. Benedict's College, Colombo (1865),St. Joseph's College (1896). The religious alignments do not affect the curriculum of the school except for the demographics of the student population.[67] The secular schoolsMahanama College (1954),D. S. Senanayake College (1967), andSirimavo Bandaranaike Vidyalaya (1973) have been established in the post independence era. Colombo has many International Schools that have come up in recent years.
Colombo has widely varying architecture that spans centuries and depicts many styles.Colonial buildings influenced by thePortuguese,Dutch andBritish exist alongside structures built inBuddhist,Hindu,Islamic,Indian andContemporary architectural styles. No other place is this more evident than in the Fort area. Here, one may find new, towering skyscrapers as well as historic buildings dating far back as the 1700s.[70][71]
The Portuguese were the first colonists to settle in Colombo. Establishing a small trading post, they had laid the foundations for a small fort which in time became the largest colonial fort on the island. The Dutch expanded the fort, thus creating a well fortified harbour. This came into the possession of the British in the late 1700s, and by the late 19th century, seeing no threat to theColombo Harbour, began demolishing the ramparts to make way for the development of the city. Although now there is nothing left of the fortifications, the area which was once the fort is still referred to as Fort. The area outside isPettah, Sri Lanka orපිටකොටුවPitakotuwa in Sinhala which means outer fort.[70][71]
There are none of the buildings of the Portuguese era and only a few from the Dutch period. These include the oldest building in the fort area, theformer Dutch Hospital, the Dutch House which is now theColombo Dutch Museum and several churches. ThePresident's House (formerly the Queen's House) was originally the Dutch governor's house and successive British governors made it their office and residence. However, it has undergone much change since the Dutch period. Adjoining the President's House are the Gordon Gardens, now off-limits to the public.[70][71][72]
Vesak Thorana in ColomboChristmas Celebrations in Colombo
Colombo's most popular festival is the celebration ofBuddha's birth, enlightenment and death all falling on the same day. In Sinhala this is known asVesak.[73] During this festival, much of the city is decorated with lanterns, lights and special displays of light (known asthoran). The festival falls in mid-May and lasts a week. Many Sri Lankans visit the city to see the lantern competitions and decorations. During this week people distribute, rice, drinks and other food items for free indunsal which means charity place. Thesedunsal are popular amongst visitors from the suburbs.
Since there is a large number of Muslims in Colombo. Eid Ul Fitr and Eid Ul Adha are two Islamic festivals that are celebrated in Colombo. Many businesses flourish during the eventual countdown for Eid Ul Fitr which is a major Islamic festival celebrated by Muslims after a month-long fasting. Colombo is generally very busy on the eve of the festivals as people do their last-minute shopping.
Christmas is another major festival. Although Sri Lanka's Christians make up only just over 7% of the population, Christmas is one of the island's biggest festivals. Most streets and commercial buildings light up from the beginning of December and festive sales begin at all shopping centres and department stores. Caroling and nativity plays are frequent sights during the season.
The Sinhalese and Hindu Aluth Awurudda' is a cultural event that takes place on 13 and 14 April. This is the celebration of the Sinhalese and Hindu new year. The festivities include many events and traditions that display a great deal of Sri Lankan culture.Several old clubs of the city give a glimpse of the British equestrian lifestyle; these include theColombo Club,Orient Club, the 80 Club, and theColombo Cricket Club.
Colombo has severalperforming arts centres, which are popular for their musical and theatrical performances, including theLionel Wendt Theatre, the Elphinstone, and Tower Hall, all of which were made for western-style productions. TheNavarangahala found in the city is the country's firstnationaltheatre designed and built for Asian and local style musical and theatrical productions.
There is also theColombo Dutch Museum detailing the Dutch colonial history of the country. Colombo does not boast a very big art gallery. There is a small collection of random Sri Lankan paintings at the Art Gallery in Green Path; next to it is the Natural History Museum.
Rugby is also a popular sport at the club and school levels. Colombo has its local football teamColombo FC and the sport is being developed as a part of the FIFA Goal program.
TheColombo Port City is to include a new Formula One track, constructed in the vicinity of the Colombo Harbour. According to Dr Priyath Wickrama, the Chairman of the Sri Lanka Ports Authority, an eight-lane F1 track will "definitely" be a part of the New Port City. This would host the Sri Lankan Grand Prix.
Almost all major media businesses in Sri Lanka operate from Colombo. The state media has its offices in Bullers Road and carries out regional transmissions from there. These include theSri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC), formerly known asRadio Ceylon, and theSri Lanka Rupavahini Corporation. The SLBC is the oldest radio station inSouth Asia and the second oldest in the world. Many private broadcasting companies have their offices and transmission stations in or around Colombo. As with most metro areas, radio bands are highly utilised for radio communications. Some of the prominent radio stations broadcasting in the Colombo area areSirasa FM,FM Derana,Hiru FM,Shakthi FM,Vettri FM,Sooriyan FM,Kiss FM, Lite FM,Yes FM,Gold FM, Sith FM, Y FM, E FM and many more.
Television networks operating in the Colombo metro area include the state-owned television broadcasting networks which are broadcast by the Rupavahini Corporation of Sri Lanka, broadcasting television in the official languages Sinhala and Tamil. English language television is also broadcast, more targeted to the demographics of the English speaking Sri Lankans, expatriate communities and tourists. There are as well several private operators. Many of the privately run television station networks were often based upon operational expansions of pre-existing commercial radio networks and broadcast infrastructure.
^Indrapala, Karthigesu (2007).The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils in Sri Lanka C. 300 BCE to C. 1200 CE. Colombo: Vijitha Yapa. p. 70.ISBN978-955-1266-72-1.
^"Department of Census and Statistics". Archived fromthe original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved22 November 2016., Additional source"The case of Colombo, Sri Lanka"(PDF). Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved22 November 2016.The totals are calculated through enumerations made from Colombo Divisional Secretariat and the Thimbirigasyaya Divisional Secretariat, which is also part of Colombo Municipal Council.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
The following books contain major components on Colombo:
Changing Face of Colombo (1501–1972): Covering the Portuguese, Dutch and British Periods, by R.L. Brohier, 1984 (Lake House, Colombo)
The Port of Colombo 1860–1939, K. Dharmasena, 1980 (Lake House, Colombo)
Decolonizing Ceylon: Colonialism, Nationalism and the Politics of Space in Sri Lanka, by Nihal Perera, 1999 (Oxford University Press)
the Essential guide for Colombo and its region,Philippe Fabry, Negombo, Viator Publications, 2011, 175 p., ISBN 978-955-8736-09-8
The impact of the Tsunami on households and vulnerable groups in two districts in Sri Lanka : Galle and Colombo, Swarna Jayaweera, Centre for Women's Research, Colombo, 2005
Patterns of Community Structure in Colombo, Sri Lanka, An investigation of Contemporary Urban Life in South Asia, Neville S. Arachchige-Don, University Press, Maryland, 1994
Colombo, Carl Muller, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1995
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![The statue of Sir Charles Henry de Soysa at De Soysa-Liptons Circus, is the first of a native, in Colombo.[78]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCHstatue22.JPG)
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