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TheCollege of Pontiffs (Latin:Collegium Pontificum; seecollegium) was a body of theancient Roman state whose members were the highest-ranking priests of thestate religion. The college consisted of thepontifex maximus and the otherpontifices, therex sacrorum, the fifteenflamens, and theVestals.[1] The College of Pontiffs was one of the four major priestly colleges; originally their responsibility was limited to supervising both public and private sacrifices, but as time passed their responsibilities increased.[2] The other colleges were theaugures (who read omens), thequindecimviri sacris faciundis ("fifteen men who carry out the rites"), and theepulones (who set up feasts at festivals).
The titlepontifex comes from the Latin for "bridge builder", a possible allusion to a very early role in placating the gods and spirits associated with theTiber River, for instance.[3] Also, Varro cites this position as meaning "able to do".[4]
Thepontifex maximus was the most important member of the college. Until 104 BC, thepontifex maximus held the sole power in appointing members to the other priesthoods in the college.
Theflamens were priests in charge of fifteen official cults of Roman religion, each assigned to a particular god. The three majorflamens (flamines maiores) were theflamen Dialis, the high priest ofJupiter; theflamen Martialis, who cultivatedMars; and theflamen Quirinalis, devoted toQuirinus. The deities cultivated by the twelveflamines minores wereCarmenta,Ceres,Falacer,Flora,Furrina,Palatua,Pomona,Portunus,Volcanus (Vulcan),Volturnus, and two whose names are lost.
The Vestal Virgins were the only female members of the college. They were in charge of guarding Rome's sacred hearth, keeping the flame burning inside theTemple of Vesta. Around age 6 to 10, girls were chosen for this position and were required to perform the rites and obligations for 30 years, including remaining chaste.
Membership in the various colleges of priests, including the College of Pontiffs, was usually an honor offered to members of politically powerful or wealthy families. Membership was for life, except for theVestal Virgins whose term was 30 years. In the early Republic, onlypatricians could become priests. However, theLex Ogulnia in 300 BC granted the right to becomepontifices andaugures toplebeians. Nevertheless, even in the late Republic it was still believed that the auspices ultimately resided with patrician magistrates, and certain ancient priesthoods: theDialis,Martialis andQuirinalis flamines, and the college of theSalii were never opened to the plebeians.[5]
The number of members in the College of Pontiffs grew over time. Originally consisting of three members, the number was increased to nine by the third century BC;Sulla increased the number to fifteen; Augustus increased the number even further, perhaps to as many as twenty-five.[6]
Until the 3rd century BC, the College elected thepontifex maximus from their own number. The right of the college to elect their ownpontifex maximus was returned, but the circumstances surrounding this are unclear. This changed again after Sulla, when in response to his reforms, the election of thepontifex maximus was once again placed in the hands of an assembly of seventeen of the twenty-fivetribes. However, the College still controlled which candidates the assembly voted on. During the Empire, the office was publicly elected from the candidates of existing pontiffs, until the Emperors began to automatically assume the title, followingJulius Caesar’s example. Thepontifex maximus was a powerful political position to hold and the candidates for office were often very active political members of the College. Many, such as Julius Caesar, went on to holdconsulships during their time aspontifex maximus.
However, after 44 BC the pontiffs, as with the other official priests of Rome, lost their political influence. Martha Hoffman Lewis could only find four instances where the pontiff's advice was asked: before Augustus' marriage to Livia; in 37 BC when they ordered the removal of the body of one of the proscribed from the Campus; they made expiatory sacrifices on the day the emperor Claudius married Agrippina; and their advice was sought concerning reforms of the discipline of theharuspices.[7]
During theKingdom of Roman history, the pontiffs were primarilyconcilia (advisers) of the kings, but after the expulsion ofthe last Roman King in 510 BC, the College of Pontiffs became religious advisers to theRoman Senate. As the most important of the four priestly colleges, the College of Pontiffs’ duties involved advising the Senate on issues pertaining to the gods, the supervision of the calendar and thus the supervision of ceremonies with their specific rituals, and the appeasement of the gods upon the appearance ofprodigies.
One of their most important duties was their guardianship of thelibri pontificales (pontifical books). Among these were theacta,indigitamenta (lists of invocations or names of deities),ritualia,commentarii,fasti, andannales (yearly records of magistrates and important events). These items were under the sole possession of the College of Pontiffs and only they were allowed to consult these items when necessary.
TheLex Acilia de intercalando bestowed power on the College to manage the calendar. Thus, they determined the days which religious and political meetings could be held, when sacrifices could be offered, votes cast, and senatorial decisions brought forth.
The College of Pontiffs came to occupy theRegia (the old palace of the kings) during the earlyRepublican period. They came to replace the religious authority that was once held by the king. A position, therex sacrorum, was even created to replace the king for purposes of religious ceremonies.
WhenChristianity became the official religion of theRoman Empire,Pope Leo I began using the titlepontifex maximus around 440 to emphasize the authority of thepope. The term "chief priests" in the New Testament (e.g. Mark 15:11) is translated asPontifices in the Latin Vulgate and "high priest" asPontifex in Hebrews 2:17.
The pontiffs were assisted by pontifical clerks or scribes(scribae), a position known in the earlier Republican period as ascriba pontificius but by theAugustan period as apontifex minor.[8] Apontifex minor assisted at the rite(res divina) forJuno performed eachKalends, the first day of the month. He took up a position in theCuria Calabra, a sacred precinct(templum) on theCapitoline Hill, to observe thenew moon.[9]
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