Afraternity (from Latin frater 'brother' and -ity; whence, "brotherhood") orfraternal organization is anorganization,society,club orfraternal order traditionally ofmen but alsowomen associated together for variousreligious orsecular aims.[1][2][3][4][5] Fraternity in theWestern concept developed in theChristian context, notably with thereligious orders in theCatholic Church during theMiddle Ages.[6][7] The concept was eventually further extended with medievalconfraternities andguilds. In the early modern era, these were followed byfraternal orders such asFreemasons, theRosicrucian Society of England, andOdd Fellows, along withgentlemen's clubs,student fraternities, and fraternal service organizations.[8][9][10] Members are occasionally referred to as abrother or – usually in a religious context –frater orfriar.[11][12]
Today, connotations of fraternities vary according to context including companionships and brotherhoods dedicated to the religious, i.e., (Knights of Columbus), intellectual, academic, physical, or social pursuits of its members. In modern times, it sometimes connotes asecret society especially regarding Freemasonry, Odd Fellows, various academic, andstudent societies.[13][14]
Although membership in fraternities was and mostly still is limited to men, this is not always the case. There are mixed male and female orders, as well as wholly female religious orders and societies, some of which are known assororities inNorth America.[15] Notable modern fraternities or fraternal orders include somegrand lodges operating among freemasons and odd fellows.[16][17]
There are known fraternal organizations which existed as far back as ancient clanhero andgoddess cults ofGreek religions and in theMithraic Mysteries ofancient Rome.
The background of the modern world of fraternities can be traced back to theconfraternities in theMiddle Ages, which were formed aslay organisations affiliated with theCatholic Church. Some were groups of men and women who were endeavoring to ally themselves more closely with the prayer and activity of the church; others were groups of tradesmen, which are more commonly referred to asguilds. These later confraternities evolved into purely secular fraternal societies, while the ones with religious goals continue to be the format of the modernThird Orders affiliated with themendicant orders. Other yet took the shape asmilitary orders during theCrusades, which later provided inspiration for elements of quite a few modern fraternal orders.
The development of modern fraternal orders was especially dynamic in theUnited States, where the freedom to associate outside governmental regulation is expressly sanctioned in law.[18] There have been hundreds of fraternal organizations in the United States, and at the beginning of the 20th century the number of memberships equaled the number of adult males. (Due to multiple memberships, probably only 50% of adult males belonged to any organizations.)[19] This led to the period being referred to as "theGolden age of fraternalism." In 1944Arthur M. Schlesinger coined the phrase "a nation of joiners" to refer to the phenomenon.[20]Alexis de Tocqueville also referred to the American reliance on private organization in the 1830s inDemocracy in America.
There are many attributes that fraternities may or may not have, depending on their structure and purpose. Fraternities can have differing degrees ofsecrecy, some form of initiation or ceremony marking admission, formal codes of behavior,dress codes disciplinary procedures, very differing amounts of real property and assets.[19]
The only true distinction between a fraternity and any other form of social organizations is the implication that the members are freely associated as equals for a mutually beneficial purpose rather than because of a religious, governmental, commercial, or familial bond – although there are fraternities dedicated to each of these fields of association.[19]
On collegecampuses, fraternities may be divided into four different groups: social, service, professional, and honorary.
Fraternities can be organized for many purposes, including university education, work skills, ethics, ethnicity, religion, politics, charity, chivalry, other standards of personal conduct, asceticism, service, performing arts, family command of territory, and even crime. There is almost always an explicit goal of mutual support, and while there have been fraternal orders for the well-off there have also been many fraternities for those in the lower ranks of society, especially for national or religious minorities. Trade unions also grew out of fraternities such as theKnights of Labor.
The ability to organize freely, apart from the institutions of government and religion, was a fundamental part of the establishment of the modern world. InLiving the Enlightenment, Margaret C. Jacobs showed that the development of Jurgen Habermas's "public space" in 17th-century Netherlands was closely related to the establishment of lodges ofFreemasons.[21]
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The development of fraternities in England may have originated withguilds that were the forerunners oftrade unions andfriendly societies. These guilds were set up to provideinsurance for their members at a time when there was nowelfare state, trade unions oruniversal health care. Various secret signs and handshakes were created to serve as proof of their membership allowing them to visit related guilds in other communities.
In London and other major cities, some Guilds (like the Freemasons and the Odd Fellows) survived by adapting their roles to a social support function. Eventually, these groups evolved in the early 18th century into more philosophical organizations focused on brotherly love and ethical living, with some elements inspired by organisations such aschivalric orders. Among guilds that became prosperous are theFreemasons,Odd Fellows andForesters. Throughout the latter part of the 19th century and into the 20th century, many American fraternal orders such as theBenevolent and Protective Order of Elks,Loyal Order of Moose, andFraternal Order of Eagles implemented practices and rituals inspired from orders such as the Freemasons and Odd Fellows. These organisations were segregated and Black organisations were founded that were based on the white ones such asPrince Hall Freemasonry,Grand United Order of Odd Fellows in America,Improved Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks of the World, as well as original fraternal organisations such as theIndependent Order of St. Luke.
Fraternities have a history in American colleges and universities and form a major subsection of the whole range of fraternities.[22] In Europe, students were organized innations and corporations since the beginnings of the modern university in the late medieval period, but the situation can differ greatly by country.
In the United States, fraternities in colleges date to the 1770s but did not fully assume an established pattern until the 1820s. Many were strongly influenced by the patterns set by Freemasonry.[19] The main difference between the older European organizations and the American organizations is that the American student societies virtually always include initiations, the formal use of symbolism, and a lodge-based organizational structure (chapters).
The oldest active social American college fraternity is theKappa Alpha Society founded in 1825 atUnion College.Sigma Phi Society (1827) andDelta Phi Fraternity (1827) were founded at the same school and comprise theUnion Triad. The women's fraternities, now more commonly referred to as sororities, formed beginning in 1851 with the establishment ofAlpha Delta Pi as the first women's fraternity.
Expansion to other schools by way of approved chapters operating under acharter or warrant has been the model whereby US fraternities have grown nationally and into Canada. This resulted in the formation of national structures of governance where previously each nascent fraternity had been under the control of its first, often "Alpha" chapter.[23] As fraternities grew larger they outpaced the capacity of volunteer management and began to employ staff, eventually requiring an administrative office. Today, hundreds of national fraternities account for roughly 15,000 active chapters.[24]
Some national groups remain quite small, with only a handful of active groups, while the largest will manage in excess of 300 active chapters. Alternatively, some fraternities remain as local units, often retaining aliterary society model that was more prevalent in the 19th century. Fraternities offer a wide variety of services: National chapters and locals may or may not have buildings, and while many are residential, some have properties that are meeting halls only.[25]
Fraternities which provide residential space exhibit an array of services and sizes. Meals may be catered, or served by a full-time staff, but in other cases the members will cook their own meals. Maintenance is typically performed by members, although on some campuses the host institution handles capital improvements. Sorority chapters tend to be larger, with a business model that includes more formal maintenance and support.[25]
Properties may be independently owned by housing corporations, and in the case of some schools these will provide the bulk of residential options for undergraduates; these properties may be on leased or privately held land. Other chapters, often new chapters, are housed in dorms and meet in rented halls.[22]
US fraternities formed in roughly three waves. The "old-line" fraternities are considered those that formed prior to, and during the American Civil War, all of which were Eastern or Southern. The next wave coincided with the period immediately after the Civil War until 1920, organizations normally modeled after the old-line fraternities. After WWII, the most recent wave of formation has largely been on ethnic or multi-cultural lines, which continues today.[22] Prior to the formation of theNIC,NPC and other associations, whole chapters or schismatic groups of members would occasionally break away to form new fraternities as an offshoot of a former national. These national associations were developed, in part, to prevent this practice.[25]
The vast majority of US collegiate institutions recognize fraternities, ranging from a benign tolerance to active support. In Canada, fraternities are only rarely given official recognition, but rather, exist in the campus orbit as independent organizations. A few US campuses have historically banned fraternity participation, a position from which several have backtracked in the face of alumni criticism or ongoing student demand. For example, sororities (only) were banned atStanford University in 1944 due to "extreme competition", but brought back in response to Title IX in 1977.[26]
Colby College,Amherst College, and a few others are the outliers, where these bans persist. TheCollege of Wooster adopted a Greek ban 100 years ago, but fraternities and sororities there have continued as local organizations. In 2017Harvard University attempted to ban single-sex clubs, a matter that was met with separate lawsuits in federal and Massachusetts courts.[27] Often, Greek chapters that are suspended or banned will continue assub rosa organizations.
Since at least the 1940s, fraternities have received increased scrutiny in the United States fromincidents ofhazing or racism that have received national attention, and on some campuses, such asFlorida State,[28] the organizations have been temporarily banned while administrators and national fraternities adjust to resolve these shared challenges.
In Germany theGerman Student Corps are the oldest academic fraternities. Twenty-eight were founded in the 18th century and two of them still exist.[29] Most of their traditions have not changed much for the past two centuries. These traditions includeacademic fencing duels with sharp blades while wearing only eye and neck protection, or regularhunting events, as can be seen in examples such asCorps Hubertia Freiburg,Corps Palatia Munich,Corps Rhenania Heidelberg orCorps Bavaria Munich.
At Swedish universities, especially those ofUppsala andLund, students have organized in student nations since the 16th century. These organizations are open to all students who wish to join. Parallel to the nations, both Uppsala and Lund play host to a large number of university-related secret societies, for both students and older academics.[30]
There are thriving collegiate fraternity systems inPuerto Rico and in thePhilippines.
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