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| Continent | Africa |
|---|---|
| Region | Indian Ocean |
| Coordinates | 20°00′S47°00′E / 20.000°S 47.000°E /-20.000; 47.000 |
| Area | Ranked 46th |
| • Total | 587,041 km2 (226,658 sq mi) |
| • Land | 99.7% |
| • Water | 0.3% |
| Coastline | 4,828 km (3,000 mi) |
| Borders | None |
| Highest point | Maromokotro 2,876 metres (9,436 ft) |
| Lowest point | Indian Ocean 0 m |
| Longest river | Mangoky |
| Largest lake | Alaotra |
| Exclusive economic zone | 1,225,259 km2 (473,075 mi2) |
Madagascar is a largeisland in theIndian Ocean located 400 kilometres (250 mi) off the eastern coast ofSouthern Africa,[1] east ofMozambique. It has a total area of 587,040 square kilometres (226,660 sq mi) with 581,540 square kilometres (224,530 sq mi) of land and 6,900 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi) of water. Madagascar is thefourth-largest island in the world.[2] The highest point isMaromokotro, in theTsaratanana Massif region in the north of the island, at 2,876 metres (9,436 ft).
TheRepublic of Madagascar is thesecond-largest island country in the world.[2] Its capitalAntananarivo is in theCentral Highlands near the centre of the island. It has the 25th largestexclusive economic zone of 1,225,259 km2 (473,075 mi2).
Madagascar can be divided into five general geographical regions: the east coast, the Tsaratanana Massif, the Central Highlands, the west coast, and the southwest. The highest elevations parallel the east coast.[3] The total size is 587,040 square kilometres (226,660 sq mi), which makes it the world's second largestisland country.[2]
The east coast consists of a narrow band of lowlands about fifty kilometres (31 mi) wide, formed from thesedimentation ofalluvial soils, and an intermediate zone composed of steep bluffs alternating with ravines bordering an escarpment of about 500 metres (1,640 ft) in elevation, which gives access to the Central Highlands. The coastal region runs roughly from north of Baie d'Antongil, the most prominent feature on theMasoala Peninsula, to the far north of the island. The coastline is straight, with the exception of a bay, offering less in the way of natural harbors than the west coast.[3]
TheCanal des Pangalanes, an 800-kilometre-long (497 mi) lagoon formed naturally by the washing of sand up on the island by the Indian Ocean currents and by the silting of rivers, is a feature of the coast; it has been used both as a means of transportation up and down the coast and as a fishing area. The beach slopes steeply into deep water. The east coast is considered dangerous for swimmers and sailors because of the large number of sharks that frequent the shoreline.[3]
The Tsaratanana Massif region at the north end of the island containsMaromokotro, the highest point on the island at 2,880 metres (9,449 ft). Further north is theMontagne d'Ambre (Ambohitra), which is of volcanic origin. The coastline is deeply indented; two prominent features are the natural harbor atAntsiranana (Diego Suárez), just south of the Cap d'Ambre (Tanjon' i Bobaomby), and the large island ofNosy Be to the west. The mountainous topography of the Tsaratanana Massif limits the potential of the port at Antsiranana by impeding the flow of traffic from other parts of the island.[3] They are a focus forbig wall climbing.
The Central Highlands, which range from 800 to 1,800 m (2,625 to 5,906 ft) in elevation, contain a wide variety of topographies: rounded and eroded hills, massive granite outcrops, extinct volcanoes, eroded peneplains, and alluvial plains and marshes, which have been converted into irrigated rice fields. The Central Highlands extend from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to the Ivakoany Massif in the south. They are defined rather clearly by the escarpments along the east coast, and they slope gently to the west coast. The Central Highlands include the Anjafy High Plateaus; the volcanic formations of Itasy (Lake Itasy is in a volcanic crater) and the Ankaratra Massif, reaching a height of 2,643 m (8,671 ft). The Isalo Ruiniform Massif lies between the central highlands and the west coast.[3]
Antananarivo, the national capital, is located in the northern portion of the Central Highlands at 1,276 m (4,186 ft) above sea level. A prominent feature of the Central Highlands is arift valley running north to south, located east of Antananarivo and includingLake Alaotra, the largest body of water on the island. The lake is located 761 m (2,497 ft) above sea level and is bordered by two cliffs, rising 701 m (2,300 ft) to the west and 488 m (1,601 ft) to the east, which form the walls of a valley. This region has experienced geologicalsubsidence, and earth tremors are frequent.[3]
The west coast, composed of sedimentary formations, is more indented than the east coast, thus offering a number of harbors sheltered from cyclones, such as the harbor atMahajanga. Deep bays and well-protected harbors have attracted explorers, traders, andpirates fromEurope,Africa, and theMiddle East since ancient times; thus, the area has served as an important bridge between Madagascar and the outside world. Silting up of harbors on this coast, caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion suffered inland in Madagascar, is a major problem. The broad alluvial plains found on the coast between Mahajanga andToliara, which are believed to have great agricultural potential, are thinly inhabited, in many places covered with swamps ofMadagascar mangroves, and remain largely unexplored, although they are the subject of mineral andhydrocarbon exploration activity. The giant oil fields ofTsimiroro (heavy oil) andBemolanga (ultra heavy oil) lie towards the west of the island.[3]
The southwest is bordered on the east by the Ivakoany Massif and on the north by the Isalo Ruiniform Massif. It includes two regions along the south coast, the Mahafaly Plateau and the desert region occupied by theAntandroy people.[3]
The minor islands of Madagascar, mostly located in the northwest, include major tourist destinations like the Nosy Be archipelago—comprisingNosy Be (the largest at 312 km²), Nosy Komba (Lemur Island), Nosy Sakatia (Orchid Island), and the marine reserve Nosy Tanikely—along with the volcanic Nosy Mitsio group, which contains the luxurious Tsarabanjina, and the Radama Islands (Nosy Kalakajoro and Nosy Berafia). Other significant islands are the aye-aye reserve Nosy Mangabe in Antongil Bay, the east coast's Île Sainte-Marie (Nosy Boraha) for whale watching, the two-island Nosy Iranja connected by a sandbar, the uninhabited, tsingy-featured Nosy Hara archipelago, the southern marine national park Nosy Ve-Androka near Toliara, and the remote French-administered Scattered Islands (like Europa and Juan de Nova) in the Mozambique Channel. These islands are collectively renowned for their beaches, diving, and unique biodiversity.[4]
TheMananara andMangoro rivers flow from the Central Highlands to the east coast, as does theManingory, which flows fromLake Alaotra. Other rivers flowing east into theIndian Ocean include theBemarivo, theIvondro, and theMananjary. These rivers tend to be short because thewatershed is located close to the east coast. Owing to the steep elevations, they flow rapidly, often over spectacular waterfalls.
The rivers flowing to the west coast discharge into theMozambique Channel and tend to be lengthier and have a lesser gradient. The major rivers on the west coast are the Sambirano, theMahajamba, theBetsiboka (part ofMahajanga is located at the mouth), theMania, theNorth andSouth Mahavavy, theMangoky, and theOnilahy. TheIkopa, which flows past Antananarivo, is a tributary of the Betsiboka. The Onilahy, located in the driest part of the island, occasionally dries up during droughts.
Important lakes, aside from Alaotra, includeLake Kinkony in the northwest,Lake Itasy in the center andLake Ihotry in the southwest.
Madagascar originated as part of theGondwana supercontinent. Its west coast was formed when Africa broke off from Gondwana around 165 million years ago. Madagascar eventually broke off fromIndia about 88 million years ago. It is geologically located within theSomali Plate.
Madagascar has been called the "Great Red Island" because of the prominence of redlateritic soils. The red soils predominate the Central Highlands, although there are much richer soils in the regions of former volcanic activity,Itasy andAnkaratra, andTsaratanana to the north. A narrow band ofalluvial soils is found all along the east coast and at the mouths of the major rivers on the west coast; clay, sand, andlimestone mixtures are found in the west; and shallow or skeletal laterite and limestone are located in the south.Deforestation and grazing cause aggressiveerosion in many locations.[3]
A 2019 global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 1,748 square kilometres (675 sq mi) of tidal flats in Madagascar, making it the 18th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.[5]
The climate istropical along the coast,temperate inland, andarid in the south. The weather is dominated by the southeasterntrade winds that originate in the Indian Oceananticyclone, a center of high atmospheric pressure that seasonally changes its position over the ocean. Madagascar has two seasons: a warm, wet season from November to April; and a cooler, dry season from May to October. There is, however, great variation in climate owing to elevation and position relative to dominant winds. Overall, surface water is most abundant along the east coast and in the far north (with the exception of the area around Cap d'Ambre, which has relatively little surface water). Amounts diminish to the west and south, and the driest regions are in the extreme south.
The east coast has a tropical rainforest climate; being most directlyexposed to the trade winds, it has the highest rainfall, averaging as high as 4,000 mm (157.5 in) annually in some places. This region has a hot, humid climate in whichtropical fevers are endemic. Destructive cyclones occur during the rainy season, coming in principally from the direction of theMascarene Islands. Because rain clouds discharge much of their moisture east of the highest elevations on the island, the Central Highlands are drier and, owing to the altitude, also cooler. Thunderstorms are common during the rainy season in the Central Highlands and the eastern coastal lowlands.
Antananarivo receives practically all of its average annual 1,400 mm (55.1 in) of rainfall between November and April. The dry season is sunny, although somewhat chilly, especially in the mornings. Although frosts are rare in Antananarivo, they are common at higher elevations. Hail is common in many of the higher areas of the island (including Antananarivo), but there is no snowfall except on theAnkaratra massif where above 2,400 m (7,874 ft) it may occasionally fall and even remain for several days.
The west coast is drier than either the east coast or the Central Highlands because the trade windslose their humidity by the time they reach this region. The southwest and the extreme south are semidesert; as little as 330 mm (13 in) of rain falls annually atToliara.
| Climate data for Antananarivo (1981–2010) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 33.0 (91.4) | 32.0 (89.6) | 33.0 (91.4) | 31.8 (89.2) | 30.2 (86.4) | 32.6 (90.7) | 27.0 (80.6) | 28.9 (84.0) | 32.3 (90.1) | 33.1 (91.6) | 33.3 (91.9) | 32.1 (89.8) | 33.3 (91.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 26.6 (79.9) | 26.5 (79.7) | 26.5 (79.7) | 25.5 (77.9) | 23.7 (74.7) | 21.2 (70.2) | 20.6 (69.1) | 21.7 (71.1) | 24.2 (75.6) | 26.0 (78.8) | 27.0 (80.6) | 27.2 (81.0) | 24.7 (76.5) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 20.8 (69.4) | 20.8 (69.4) | 20.7 (69.3) | 19.5 (67.1) | 17.3 (63.1) | 15.1 (59.2) | 14.3 (57.7) | 14.9 (58.8) | 16.8 (62.2) | 18.7 (65.7) | 20.1 (68.2) | 20.7 (69.3) | 18.3 (64.9) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 17.3 (63.1) | 17.3 (63.1) | 17.0 (62.6) | 15.4 (59.7) | 13.2 (55.8) | 10.9 (51.6) | 9.9 (49.8) | 10.3 (50.5) | 11.4 (52.5) | 13.6 (56.5) | 15.2 (59.4) | 16.7 (62.1) | 14.0 (57.2) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 10.9 (51.6) | 11.0 (51.8) | 10.0 (50.0) | 9.0 (48.2) | 4.0 (39.2) | 2.0 (35.6) | 2.0 (35.6) | 4.4 (39.9) | 2.3 (36.1) | 6.0 (42.8) | 9.3 (48.7) | 10.5 (50.9) | 2.0 (35.6) |
| Averageprecipitation mm (inches) | 340 (13.4) | 290 (11.4) | 191 (7.5) | 55 (2.2) | 19 (0.7) | 4 (0.2) | 8 (0.3) | 6 (0.2) | 10 (0.4) | 68 (2.7) | 135 (5.3) | 311 (12.2) | 1,437 (56.5) |
| Average rainy days | 19 | 17 | 14 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 8 | 11 | 15 | 118 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 79 | 80 | 79 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 76 | 74 | 70 | 69 | 71 | 77 | 76 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 210.5 | 178.0 | 199.1 | 220.5 | 228.8 | 206.1 | 213.9 | 235.0 | 249.5 | 251.0 | 232.7 | 201.1 | 2,626.2 |
| Source 1: NOAA[6] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:Pogoda[7] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Toamasina (1961–1990, extremes 1889–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 37.4 (99.3) | 38.6 (101.5) | 36.7 (98.1) | 35.0 (95.0) | 34.0 (93.2) | 29.6 (85.3) | 31.2 (88.2) | 30.2 (86.4) | 30.6 (87.1) | 33.2 (91.8) | 33.0 (91.4) | 33.6 (92.5) | 38.6 (101.5) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 30.1 (86.2) | 30.3 (86.5) | 29.5 (85.1) | 28.8 (83.8) | 27.3 (81.1) | 25.6 (78.1) | 24.8 (76.6) | 24.9 (76.8) | 25.8 (78.4) | 26.9 (80.4) | 28.4 (83.1) | 29.4 (84.9) | 27.6 (81.7) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 26.0 (78.8) | 26.1 (79.0) | 25.5 (77.9) | 24.6 (76.3) | 22.9 (73.2) | 21.1 (70.0) | 20.4 (68.7) | 20.5 (68.9) | 21.3 (70.3) | 22.7 (72.9) | 24.3 (75.7) | 25.5 (77.9) | 23.4 (74.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 22.5 (72.5) | 22.7 (72.9) | 22.4 (72.3) | 21.4 (70.5) | 19.5 (67.1) | 17.8 (64.0) | 17.1 (62.8) | 17.0 (62.6) | 17.3 (63.1) | 18.7 (65.7) | 20.4 (68.7) | 21.9 (71.4) | 19.9 (67.8) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 18.0 (64.4) | 17.5 (63.5) | 17.0 (62.6) | 15.0 (59.0) | 13.2 (55.8) | 11.0 (51.8) | 11.8 (53.2) | 10.0 (50.0) | 11.0 (51.8) | 11.0 (51.8) | 13.5 (56.3) | 16.0 (60.8) | 10.0 (50.0) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 410.1 (16.15) | 382.1 (15.04) | 478.4 (18.83) | 322.8 (12.71) | 228.3 (8.99) | 259.0 (10.20) | 288.6 (11.36) | 218.2 (8.59) | 121.1 (4.77) | 132.6 (5.22) | 169.7 (6.68) | 357.3 (14.07) | 3,368.2 (132.61) |
| Average rainy days(≥ 1.0 mm) | 19 | 17 | 21 | 18 | 17 | 18 | 22 | 20 | 15 | 13 | 14 | 17 | 211 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 83 | 83 | 85 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 84 | 85 | 83 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 84 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 224.7 | 198.2 | 191.0 | 196.9 | 192.1 | 162.5 | 162.8 | 184.6 | 209.7 | 232.7 | 236.0 | 219.2 | 2,410.4 |
| Source 1: NOAA[8] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:Deutscher Wetterdienst (humidity, 1951–1967),[9] Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)[10] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Toliara (Tulear), Madagascar (1961–1990, extremes 1951–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 42.3 (108.1) | 39.0 (102.2) | 39.7 (103.5) | 38.5 (101.3) | 37.4 (99.3) | 35.7 (96.3) | 34.5 (94.1) | 37.5 (99.5) | 37.5 (99.5) | 39.5 (103.1) | 37.7 (99.9) | 38.7 (101.7) | 42.3 (108.1) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 32.2 (90.0) | 32.3 (90.1) | 32.0 (89.6) | 30.6 (87.1) | 28.6 (83.5) | 26.9 (80.4) | 26.8 (80.2) | 27.7 (81.9) | 28.5 (83.3) | 29.3 (84.7) | 30.3 (86.5) | 31.3 (88.3) | 29.8 (85.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 27.5 (81.5) | 27.5 (81.5) | 26.8 (80.2) | 25.0 (77.0) | 22.7 (72.9) | 20.7 (69.3) | 20.3 (68.5) | 21.0 (69.8) | 22.3 (72.1) | 23.9 (75.0) | 25.3 (77.5) | 26.6 (79.9) | 24.1 (75.4) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 22.9 (73.2) | 22.9 (73.2) | 21.9 (71.4) | 19.9 (67.8) | 16.9 (62.4) | 14.8 (58.6) | 14.4 (57.9) | 14.8 (58.6) | 16.2 (61.2) | 18.5 (65.3) | 20.3 (68.5) | 22.1 (71.8) | 18.8 (65.8) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 14.6 (58.3) | 15.0 (59.0) | 16.8 (62.2) | 10.0 (50.0) | 10.2 (50.4) | 4.2 (39.6) | 8.4 (47.1) | 10.0 (50.0) | 9.0 (48.2) | 11.8 (53.2) | 14.0 (57.2) | 17.0 (62.6) | 4.2 (39.6) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 94.7 (3.73) | 88.7 (3.49) | 35.9 (1.41) | 17.7 (0.70) | 15.8 (0.62) | 14.9 (0.59) | 6.2 (0.24) | 5.6 (0.22) | 7.8 (0.31) | 11.9 (0.47) | 21.7 (0.85) | 97.0 (3.82) | 417.9 (16.45) |
| Average rainy days(≥ 1.0 mm) | 6 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 32 |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 77 | 77 | 75 | 76 | 75 | 74 | 74 | 72 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 77 | 75 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 310.7 | 271.9 | 299.9 | 289.4 | 296.4 | 282.5 | 295.3 | 315.4 | 304.4 | 314.3 | 316.2 | 300.6 | 3,597 |
| Source 1: NOAA[11] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:Deutscher Wetterdienst (humidity, 1951–1980),[12] Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)[13] | |||||||||||||
Climate change is a significant threat toMadagascar's environment and people. Climate change has raised temperatures, made thedry season longer and has resulted inmore intense tropical storms. The country's uniqueecosystems,animal andplant life are being impacted.
Climate change is projected to drive declines incoral reefs and forest habitats, and threaten native species such aslemurs. The human population is highlyvulnerable due to severe impacts on water andagriculture, with implications forfood security. Infectious diseases are also expected to increase. Madagascar is a signatory to theParis Agreement and has set out goals forclimate change adaptation, although their implementation faces challenges due to country's relative poverty.
Madagascar occasionally experiences the impact ofcyclones. During February 2–4, 1994, Madagascar was struck byCyclone Geralda. The cyclone killed seventy people and destroyed enough property to leave approximately 500,000 homeless, including 30,000 in Antananarivo and 80,000 inToamasina. The cyclone also significantly damaged the country's infrastructure, most notably coastal roads, railroads, and telecommunications, as well as agriculture. The damage was estimated at US$45 million.
During March 1–18, 2004, Madagascar was impacted byCyclone Gafilo, the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the South-West Indian Ocean. The National Rescue Council inAntananarivo reported 237 dead, 181 missing, 879 injured, and 304,000 homeless (174,000 inAntalaha alone). More than 20,000 homes were destroyed, as well as 413 public buildings and 3,400 schools were damaged, including 1,400 schools completely destroyed. The Cyclone left an estimated damage of US$250 million.
In February 2022,Cyclone Batsirai killed at least 10 people and caused floods, power outages, and structural damages, mere weeks afterCyclone Ana had killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.[14]
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The island of Madagascar has been described as an "alternate world" or a "world apart" because of the uniqueness and rarity of many of its plant and animal species. Their characteristics are believed to reflect the island's origins as a part ofGondwanaland and its many millions of years of isolation following the breakup of the landmass.
Many of the characteristic African species—large mammals such as the elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, and antelope and predators such as lions and leopards—do not exist in Madagascar. In addition, the island has been spared the great variety of venomous snakes indigenous to the African continent. Although it is assumed that most life forms on the island had an African (or South American) origin, isolation has allowed old species—elsewhere extinct—to survive and new species unique to the island to evolve. Thus, a great number of plant, insect, reptile, and fish species areendemic to Madagascar, and all indigenous land mammal species—66 in all—are unique to the island.
Madagascar was once covered almost completely by forests, butslash and burn practices for dry rice cultivation has denuded most of the landscape, especially in the Central Highlands.Rain forests are concentrated on the steep hillsides along a slender north–south axis bordering the east coast, from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to Tolagnaro in the south. Secondary growth, which has replaced the original forest and consists to a large extent oftraveller's trees,raffia palm, andbaobabs, is found in many places along the east coast and in the north. The vegetation of the Central Highlands and the west coast is for the most partsavanna orsteppe, and coarse prairie grass predominates where erosion has not exposed the orange-red lateritic soil. In the southwest, the vegetation is adapted to desert conditions.
The remaining rain forest contains a great number of unique plant species. The country has some 900 species oforchid.Bananas,mangoes,coconut,vanilla, and other tropical plants grow on the coasts, and theeucalyptus tree, brought fromAustralia, is widespread today.
Wood and charcoal from the forests are used to meet 80% of domestic fuel needs. As a result, wood has become scarce. In 1990, theWorld Bank launched an environmental program that has increased the planting of pine and eucalyptus to satisfy fuel needs.
Madagascar has a number of natural resources, includingnickel,cobalt,graphite,chromite,coal,bauxite, rare Earth elements,salt,quartz,tar sands,semi-precious stones andmica. There are also fishing areas offshore and potential forhydropower. In 2011, it was estimated that 5.96% of the land area was used forarable land and 1.02% had permanent crops. Twenty-six percent of the land is forested. The majority of the population depends onsubsistence farming, largelyrice andcattle. The manufacturing sector is small but growing.
Madagascar is currently suffering in some areas from soil erosion as a result ofdeforestation andovergrazing,desertification, and contamination of surface water with raw sewage and organic waste. Several species of flora and fauna that are unique to the islands are endangered. Regular cyclones cause flooding in low-lying coastal regions.
This is a list of the extreme points of Madagascar, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
Geographic data related toGeography of Madagascar atOpenStreetMap
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. Peter J. Schraeder. "Madagascar".Country Studies.Federal Research Division.