Climate Trace estimate over 700 million tonnes of GHG was emitted in 2024, made up of 695 excludingLand use, land-use change, and forestry,[39] and 7 million tonnes from LULUCF. Their estimate of 139 Mt of GHG from waste in 2024 is much higher than the official figure of 14 Mt in 2023,[21] but the reason is unclear.
TheTransnational Institute estimated 2023 military emissions at 4.7 million tonnes,[42] but this estimate may not have used officialNATO methodology.[43]
TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines three methodological tiers to measure emissions. Tier 1 uses global defaults and simplified assumptions, so is the easiest but least accurate. Tier 2 uses country specific values and more detailed data. Tier 3 uses the most detailed data and modelling, so is the most difficult to compile but the most accurate. To make best use of human resources each nation may decide to only use higher tiers to estimate its particular "key categories". Turkstat selects these categories depending on either the absolute level of emissions from that category, or whether it is trending, or uncertain.[20]: 439 For example,N2O from wastewater treatment and discharge was a key category for 2021 solely because of its quickly rising emissions.[20]: 440 Nevertheless, most of the key categories selected in 2021 are the largest emitting sectors,cement production for example. Turkey uses Tier 2 and Tier 3 methodology for some key categories, for example a power plant mightanalyse the lignite it burns, which differs from mine to mine.[20]: 72 Turkey has a high rate of car ownership even in urban areas,[48]: 31 and although road transport is a key category, it is not split between cars and lorries as is done in some countries. In 2021 the UNFCCC asked Turkey why it reported negligible indirect GHGs (carbon monoxide,nitrogen oxides, non-methanevolatile organic compounds andsulfur oxides) in 2018.[49]: 12
Coal-fired power stations emit the most, followed by cars and lorries.
Turkey emitted 560 Mt of GHG in 2022,[50] which is higher than would be sustainable under aglobal carbon budget.[51][52] Per-person emissions are around the world average,[53] at 6.6 t in 2022.[50] Turkey's cumulative CO2 emissions are estimated at around 12 Gt, which is less than 1% of the world's cumulative total (Turkey's population is about 1% of world population).[54] Turkey's emissions can be looked at from different perspectives to the standard IPCC classification: for example a 2021 study byIzmir University of Economics estimated that food, "from farm to fork", accounts for about a third of national emissions,[55] which is similar to the global emissions share of food.[56]
Emissions from gas increased, but remain far below coal. Emissions from oil products, such as petrol and diesel, increased more slowly than gas and coal.
Burningcoal in Turkey was the largest contributor to fossil-fuel emissions in 2021, followed by oil and natural gas.[20]: 57 That year, Turkey's energy sector emitted over 70% of the country's GHG,[50] mostly through electricity generation, followed by transport.[a][20]: 43 In contrast agriculture contributed 13% of emissions and industrial processes and product use (IPPU) also 13%.[14]Carbon capture and storage is not economically viable, since the country has nocarbon pricing.[57] The GHG emission intensity of energy consumption is higher than in the EU.[58]
From 2023 Turkey expects to greatly increase gas production.[59] In 2021, IEA headFatih Birol called for fossil-fuel producing countries to include limits onmethane leaks in their climate pledges,[60] for example the United States is doing this.[61]
Production of public heat and electricity emitted 148megatonnes of CO2e in 2021,[62]: table 1s1 cell B10 mainly through coal burning.[b] In 2020,emission intensity was about 440 gCO2/kWh,[64] around the average forG20 countries.[65] Investment in wind andsolar is hampered by subsidies for coal.[66]: 10
Pollution overAnkara. Coal is still burnt to heat older buildings in cities.
Subsidised coal burnt by poor families contributes a bit to climate change, and more importantly itssootpollutes local air. Residential fuel, such as natural gas and coal, contributed 50 Mt CO2e in 2021.[20]: 135 Burningfossil fuels such as coal and natural gas to heat commercial and institutional buildings emitted 14 Mt CO2e in 2021.[20]: 133 According to theMinistry of Energy and Natural Resources, "The energy sector, which is an emission-intensive and resource-intensive sector, will be one of the sectors that will be most affected by the regulations brought or to be brought by [the Paris and UNFCCC] agreements. In this context, our country is determined to use its energy resources effectively, efficiently and with the least impact on the environment, within the framework of sustainable development goals.".[67][c]
Some old power stations likeYatağan pollute but are subsidized.
Turkey's coal-fired power stations are the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey at 103 Mt (about 20% of national emissions – see pie chart) in 2021.[62]: table 1.A(a)s1 cell G26 "solid fuels" Over a kilogram of CO2 is emitted for everyKWh of electricity generated in Turkey by coal-fired power stations.[68]: 177 If operated at the targetedcapacity factor, plannedunits at Afşin Elbistan would add over 60 Mt CO2 per year,[69]: 319 more than one-tenth of the country's entire emissions.[70][d][e]
Almost all coal burnt in power stations is locallignite or importedbituminous (hard) coal.Coal analysis of Turkish lignite shows that it is high in ash and moisture, low inenergy value and high inemission intensity;[71] that is Turkish lignite emits more CO2 than other countries' lignites.[71] When carbon dioxide (CO2) from coal used by industry and buildings, andmethane emissions fromcoal mining, are added to those from coal-fired electricity generation, over 30% of Turkey's annual emissions come from coal. In 2021, burning coal emitted 153 Mt CO2 in total.[20]: 57 Methane leaks from coal mines in 2021 were equivalent to 6 Mt CO2.[20]: 141 [72]Eren Holding (via Eren Enerji's coal-firedZETES power stations) emits over 2% of Turkey's GHG, andİÇDAŞ emits over 1% from its Bekirli coal-fired power stations.[73] Emissions ofblack carbon are not published for individual power stations,[74]: 2 as Turkey has not ratified theGothenburg Protocol on air pollution.[75]
Gas-fired power stations emitted 46 Mt CO2e in 2021.[62]: table 1.A(a)s1 cell G27 It is difficult for them to compete with coal partly due to the lack of a carbon price.[76] Electricity generation from gas tends to increase when hydropower is limited by droughts.[77] The cost of natural gas is expected to fall around 2026 with the expiry of expensive import agreements with Russia and Iran, and increasing production from theSakarya Gas Field in theBlack Sea.[78][79]
Transport emitted 91 Mt of CO2e in 2021,[20]: 104 a bit over one tonne per person.Road transport in the country dominated emissions with 86 Mt (including agricultural vehicles).[20]: 105 Over three-quarters of Turkey's road-transport emissions come fromdiesel fuel.[20]: 108 Over half of motor vehicles are cars,[23]: section 4.2.4 but their proportion of road-transport emissions compared to others such as lorries is not known. Although the EU has a 2021 target of 95 g of CO2/km, Turkey has no target for road vehicle emissions per km.[81]: 17 Fuel quality and emissions standards for new cars are less strict than those in the EU;[82]: 102 and in 2019 about 45% of cars were over 10 years old and energy-inefficient.[81]: 16 The market share of electric vehicles was below world average in 2020.[83]: 113 Domestic flights[f] emitted 3 Mt of CO2e in 2021[20]: 112 and their VAT rate was cut to 1%.[84]
In 2021,Turkey's industrial sector emitted 75 Mt (13%) of GHG.[14] IEA head Fatih Birol has said that the country has a lot of potential for renewable energy.[85] Some sugar factories, such as some owned by Türkşeker[86] and Konya Seker, burn coal for theheat needed to make sugar and sometimes to generate electricity.[87] Some industrial companies reach theGlobal Reporting Initiative GRI 305 emissions standard.[88]
The European steel industry has complained that steel imports from Turkey are unfair competition, because they are not subject to acarbon tax,[89] and alleges that the natural gas used to produce some steel is subsidised.[90] Turkish steel, primarily fromminimills, averages about one tonne of CO2 per tonne of steel produced.[91] Although this average is less polluting than China,[91] three steelworks—Erdemir,İsdemir andKardemir—useblast furnaces and thus emit more than those usingelectric arc furnaces.[92] The EUCarbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) includes a carbon tariff on Turkish steel produced in blast furnaces,[93] but the CBAM could help arc furnaces compete against products such as Chinese steel.[94] Companies are investing insolar power in Turkey.[95]
Turkey is the sixth-largestcement producer in the world and the largest in Europe,[96] and by far the largest exporter to the EU.[97] Cement (clinker) production in 2021 emitted 44 Mt CO2, 8% of the country's total GHG.[20]: 155 Climate Trace has estimated the contributions of individual factories, sometimes from kiln heat visible from satellites,[98] and says that Nuh, Göltaş, andMedcem cement plants emitted more than 1 Mt each in 2023.[99] Nuh publish information about their emissions and say some of their cement is low emission,[100] and Medcem publishes some figures[101] whereas Göltaş has less GHG info.[102] As of 2026[update] most producers report about 0.8 tonnes CO2eq per tonne cement.[103]
Turkey's construction sector contracted at the end of 2018[104] and so used less cement.[105] Cement producers in the EU have to buyEU carbon credits, and say the CBAM is needed to protect them from unfair competition from Turkish companies as they pay no carbon price.[106] The CBAM could be up to 50% on the cement price.[107] The proportion of clinker in publicly procured cement is being reduced.[23]: section 4.2.2.1
The official estimate for 2021soda ash production was under 1 Mt but the emission factor used in the calculation is confidential.[20]: 190 Climate Trace estimated 2022 at over 3 Mt,[108] but have very low confidence in the accuracy of their estimate.[109]Kazan Soda Elektrik andEti Soda have published figures for 2019 and 2021 respectively.
Almost half of agricultural emissions are from cows.
Agriculture accounted for 72 Mt which was 13% of Turkey's total 2021 GHG, including 61% of its methane emissions and 78% of itsnitrous oxide emissions.[14] These are due primarily toenteric fermentation,agricultural soils, andfertilizer management.[110][failed verification]Cattle emit almost half of the GHG from agriculture.[20]: 240, 257 - (Total 72 Mt: 27 Mt enteric fermentation 61% of 9 Mt manure management = 32 Mt).
About three quarters of red meat production in Turkey is beef.[111] Turks eat an average of 15 kilograms (33 lb) ofbeef per person each year (which is more than the world average[112]), and the country produced 1 million tonnes of beef in 2021.[113] Livestock are subsidized.[113] VAT on meat and dairy is 1% like other "staple foods". Beingruminants sheep, goats and cattle belch methane. Fertilizers can emit the GHG nitrous oxide, but estimates of the effects of government policy on the agricultural and waste sectors' emissions are lacking.[114]: 28 Turkey is one of the top ten nitrous oxide emitters.[115]Production of plastic, such as for agriculture, may release significant GHG in future.[116] National GHG inventories do not yet includebottom trawling, as the IPCC has yet to issue accounting guidelines.[117] In 2024 the government said that farming subsidies would be "reviewed through the lens of climate change".[23]: section 4.2.6.1
Municipalities collect about 1kg of waste per person per day.[23]: section 4.2.5 The government says the waste sector contributed 14 Mt (2.5%) of Turkey's 2023 GHG,[118] with almost half of that from the tenth of waste sent to unmanagedlandfills.[23]: section 4.2.5 However Climate Trace estimates CO2e from solid waste disposal at 60 Mt in 2025.[119] (part year to November)[needs update] It is unclear why there is such an enormous difference.
Landfilling is the most common waste-disposal method.[120] Climate Trace estimateOdayeri (even though it has abiogas facility[121]) on the European side of Istanbul to be the biggest waste single emitter at over 6 Mt in 2023.[122][needs update]Organic waste sent to landfills emits methane, but the country is working to improve sustainablewaste and resource management.[123] One third of organic waste iscomposted,[124] but others argue forincineration.[120] Some refrigerants are sent to Turkey from other countries for destruction.[125]
According toBoğaziçi University's Center for Climate Change and Policy Studies, human-caused climate change in Turkey started in the 1970s.[126]Coupled Model Intercomparison Project#CMIP_Phase_6 (CMIP6) models it well,[127] however the CMIP6 Multi-Model Ensemble Mean is too coarse a resolution (2° × 1.5°) for the higher parts of Turkey.[128] One example of climate change's impact will be on the distribution of rainfall: the descending edge of theHadley cell (an area of circulation near the equator) may move northwards towards Turkey, whose southern border is around 36 degrees north, and this may reduce rainfall in the south of the country.[129]
Turkey is forecast to be more severely affected than many other countries,[133][134] but effects vary considerably across its regions.[135] As of 2026[update], the three hottest years on record were 2025, 2024 and 2010.[136][137][better source needed] As of 2026[update] theOECD thinks that with a low-carbon scenario the rise can be kept below 1.7 degrees.[4]
Seasonally, there may be more precipitation in the winter, but 50% less in spring and autumn.[143] Heatwaves[144] and droughts are increasing,[145][146] at least in some parts of the country.[147]
Heatwaves in Turkey are a hazard[148][149] and are predicted to last much longer due to climate change in Turkey.[150] The definition of a heatwave includes affecting a large area, being at least 5 degrees above normal and lasting at least 2 days,[151] with highhumidity.[152]Heat waves have increased since 1950.[153] In July 2025 there were record breaking temperatures,[154][155] like the2025 European heatwaves.
Climate change has reduced rainfall in some regions and has made it less regular, which has put stress onhydroelectric power plants.[158] Between 1979 and 2019 annual precipitation fluctuated from over 60 cm to under 45 cm,[158] and average annual temperatures varied by 4 degrees.[158]
Turkey is already awater stressed country, because the amount of water per person is only about 1,500 cubic metres (53,000 cu ft) a year: and due topopulation increase and climate change it is highly likely the country will sufferwater scarcity (less than 1,000 m³) by the 2070s.[129] Little change has been forecast for water resources in the northernriver basins, but a substantial reduction has been forecast for the southern river basins.[129]Konya in central Turkey is also vulnerable.[159] Charging for water used by agriculture has been suggested.[160]: 64–66
Producing beef in Turkey needs almost half as much again water as the global average,[161]: 109 but although climate change is causingdroughts in Turkey,[162][147] feed for cattle is subsidized.[163]
In coastal areas permanent wetlands, croplands and grassland are affected.[158] Climate models predict that extreme weather events will increase in theMediterranean Region.[134]: 151 Glaciers in Turkey are retreating:[168] the largest remaining are theglaciers onMount Ararat and these are forecast to be gone by 2065,[169] as they are melting much faster than mountain glaciers in many other parts of the world.[157] Because the climate in the south is forecast to become hotter and drier it may be very difficult to keep the current southernforests in Turkey.[129] In theMarmara and Mediterreanean regionswildfires are associated with the warming trend of the Eastern Mediterranean Basin.[170]Soil erosion continues[171] and is forecast to increase.[172] The rise insea surface temperature is one of the causes ofmarine mucilage in theSea of Marmara,[173] and is expected to further change marine life in Turkish waters.[174] The sea surface temperature of theBlack Sea has increased by 2 degrees,[175] and there are concerns ofbrown bears nothibernating.[176] Somewhite storks no longer migrate south in winter.[177]
Although climate related economic losses are much lower than in the EU they increased over the early 2020s.[178] Environment Minister Murat Kurum estimated in 2021 that losses due to disasters, such as floods,[179] caused by climate change would amount to billions of lira (hundreds of millions of dollars).[180] TheWorld Bank has estimated the cost and benefits of stopping net carbon emissions, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.[181] For companies which responded to theCarbon Disclosure Project in 2022 the main climate change risk to their businesses iscarbon pricing, such as the European UnionCarbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.[182]: 10
Unless global emissions are greatly reducedagriculture in Turkey, such aswheat,[186][187] is expected to be severely affected after the late 2030s, especially in areas with rain fed agriculture.[188] Arid and semi-arid areas are at risk ofdesertification.[189] Water is lost through evaporation due to outdated irrigation techniques used by theSoutheastern Anatolia Project, increasing the risk of severe water shortage.[190]
Damage to agriculture[191] is predicted to greatly increase,[188] for example due to "false spring"germination orblossoming followed by a cold snap.[143] The increase in early blooming, which is happening due to climate change, can be a problem for crops such as fruit trees.[192]Vineyards in Thrace are being affected.[193] A significant decline in agricultural production is transmitted throughout the economy and reduces national welfare.[194] Moreagritech co-operation with the EU andUAE has been suggested.[195]
Tourism in Turkey may become too hot in the summer for some people, for exampleAntalya could become too hot for some visitors during some school holidays.[205] Development ofski resorts in theCentral Taurus and eastern Black Sea region mountains may not be possible.[206]
Climate change may impacthealth in Turkey, for example due to increasedheatwaves,[207][208] especially elderly and chronically ill people and children.[209]Wildfires in Turkey were the worst in the history of the republic in 2021 and killed several people and injured hundreds. Droughts riskmosquito borne diseases.[210] 1,350 people died because of floods between 1970 and 2014 in Turkey and about 2 million people were affected by those floods.[134]
Environmentalists say that new highways and building concrete are hindering absorption of floodwater by the land.[211]Urban heat islands are also a problem.[212] Because of the increase in temperature, existing buildings will need more energy for cooling.[213]
The government said in November 2024 that it was dedicated to global efforts to limit temperature increases to 1.5 degrees,[22] but according toClimate Action Tracker Turkey's GHG emissions are not in line with the Paris Agreement objective to limit temperature rise to well below 2 °C.[214]
A long-term climate strategy was published in 2024 but omitscoal phase-out.[31][215][23]TheUnited Nations Environment Programme says a faster decarbonisation is needed, and emissions per person per year should be cut by more than half to about 2–2.5 t CO2e by 2030.[216]: XXV [needs update]The government intended to complete its review of long-term (2030 to 2050) policy,[217]: 42 [g] and publish a new National Climate Change Action Plan with sector specific targets and monitoring mechanisms by 2023,[220] but as of 2025 the plan ends in 2030.[221] Turkey argues that as adeveloping country it should be exempt from net emission reduction targets, but other countries do not agree.[220]: 59
Unless Turkey's energy policy is changed, European Union (EU) emissions per person are forecast to fall below Turkey's during the 2020s.[216]: 22 Since the EU is Turkey's main trading partner, a comparison with targets in theEuropean Green Deal is important to help Turkish businesses avoid future EUcarbon tariffs, on exports such as steel[222] and cement.[223] Public and private sector working groups discussed theEuropean Green Deal,[224] and theTrade Ministry published an action plan in response to itsCarbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.[225] Agreen taxonomy is being developed.[226]
Burning coal, petrol, diesel and natural gas is putting far more carbon dioxide into the air thanforests can take out. There is some correlation with theeconomic history of Turkey, such as a dip during the2001 economic crisis.Greenhouse gas per person, before and after absorption by forests. The greater net dip in 2019 is because forest cover was resurveyed and found to be more than previously thought.
Turkey is aiming fornet zero carbon emissions by 2053.[227] TheWorld Bank has estimated the cost and benefits, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.[228] The long-term climate change strategy published by theMinistry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change in 2024 does not specifically mention coal, but says that the "infrastructure of existing fossil fuel-based facilities will be reviewed".[23]: section 4.8
ThinktankIstanbul Policy Center doubts that the target of 643 million tonnes in 2035 is compatible with the 2053 net zero target. In 2025 severalNGOs criticised the 2035 target as being set without consultation and an increase on 2023 emissions.[229]
Emissions could be reduced considerably by switching from coal to existing gas-fired power stations:[230] as there is enough generating capacity to allow the decommissioning of all coal-fired power stations and still meet peak energy demand, as long as hydropower as well as gas is used to meet peaks in demand.[231] By the mid-2020s the gas price is forecast to have fallen considerably,[232] as Turkey's production from the Black Sea will be more than enough to meet national demand.[233] However, according to a 2021 study the electricity sector is financially unable to transform itself in response to the CBAM, and "to avoid market failure, the government must step in by designing a general decarbonization program for electricity production in Turkey".[234] Asolar panel factory began production in 2020;[235] andsolar andwind power are the cheapest generating technologies,[232] but are underdeveloped.[236] Fossil fuel subsidies riskcarbon lock-in, but if they were scrapped (as suggest by environment minister Şimşek[237]) wind and solar power could expand faster.[238]: 7 Relying simply on battery storage would be insufficient to decarbonise electricity, as periods of high and low demand last for two to three weeks.[239] Ramping downnuclear power in Turkey will be technically possible, at times when solar or wind increases or electricity demand drops, but would be expensive because of high fixed costs and lost sales revenue.[240]: 72 However, after upgrading,[241]repowering[242] and adding a small amount ofpumped-storage hydroelectricity,[243] there are enoughhydropower dams in Turkey to providedispatchable generation to balancevariable renewable energy, even allowing for more frequentdroughts in Turkey in the future because of climate change.[238]: 7 Solar farms are being co-located with hydropower to maintain generation in case of drought.[244] Turkey is in the top ten countries forgeothermal energy.[245] National and international investments in renewable energy and energy efficiency are being made; for example, the EBRD is supporting the installation ofsmart meters.[246] Along with cement the electricity sector is forecast to be the hardest hit by the CBAM.[234] There are subsidies for manufacturers of heat pumps and grid scale batteries.[247]
There are almost 10 millionbuildings in Turkey,[23]: section 4.2.3 and as they are the largest energy consumers there are substantial opportunities for energy savings in both new build and renovations.[248] There is a roadmap, which says that as of 2021 three quarters of building stock is pre-21st century, that is pre energy standards.[249] A typical residential building emits almost 50 kgCO2eq/m2/year, mostly due to the energy used by residents.[250] TheOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has said that more could be done to improve the energy efficiency of buildings, and that tax incentives offered for this would create jobs.[220]: 62 Turkey was a co-leader of the group discussingzero-carbon buildings at the2019 UN Climate Action Summit, and the city ofEskişehir has pledged to convert all existing buildings to zero emissions by 2050.[251][252] Such energy efficiency improvements can be made in the same programme as increasing resilience toearthquakes in Turkey.[253] However, as of 2023 gas was subsidized.[254] Increasing the proportion ofpassive houses has been suggested,[255] as has adopting some EU building standards.[256] ThinktankEmber said in 2023 thatrooftop solar should be mandatory on new buildings, and say that installation on apartment block roofs is hindered by bureaucracy.[257] To improve theenergy efficiency of buildings it has been suggested thatgreen building principles and technologies should be applied.[258]
Althoughlow-energy houses,zero-energy buildings andzero carbon housing will be encouraged,[23]: section 4.2.3.1 the 2024 long-term plan said that "The existing natural gas transmission and distribution infrastructure will be strengthened, and natural gas access will be provided in areas where renewable sources and waste heat-based district heating/cooling systems are not technically or economically feasible."[23]: section 4.2.1.1 In rural areas without a piped gas supply,heat pumps could be an alternative to wood, coal and bottled gas: but buying a heat pump is rare as it is very expensive for householders as there is no subsidy.[259]: 29 As well as more insulation help for poor rural people, subsidies for communal heat pumps and solar panels have been suggested for any villages where they would be technically suitable.[260] Owners of larger properties such as shopping centres, schools and government buildings have shown more interest in heat pumps.[261] Direct geothermal heating (not to be confused with heat pumps) installed capacity totaled 3.5 GW thermal (GWt) in 2020, with the potential for 60 GWt.[262]
There is no data on thecarbon intensity of cement.[263]: 13 Emissions from cement production could be lessened by reducing itsclinker content[264]—for example, by makingLimestone Calcined Clay Cement, which is only half clinker. The second-largest reduction could be made by switching half the fuel from hard coal andpetroleum coke (petcoke) to a mixture of rubber from waste tires,refuse-derived fuel andbiomass.[265] Although the country has enough of these materials, most cement kilns (there are 54[20]: 156 ) use coal, petcoke or lignite as their primary energy source.[20]: 154 Morecross-laminated timber could be used for building, instead of concrete.[266] Further decarbonisation of cement production would depend heavily on carbon capture,[23]: section 4.2.2.1 perhaps storing in asalt dome nearLake Tuz[267] or inDiyarbakır Province.[268]
In the 2000s transport emission intensity improved, but this gain was partially lost in the 2010s due to the growing preference forsport utility vehicles.[269] Although Turkey has severalmanufacturers of electric buses[270] and many are exported,[271] fewer than 100 were in use in the country in 2021.[272] A 2024 analysis said that government was prioritising vehicle production and exports over electric vehicle use.[273]Ebikes are manufactured,[274] but cities could be improved to makecycling in Turkey safer.[275]
Although Turkey's ferries (unlike some other countries') are still fossil-fuelled,[276] the world's first all-electrictugboat began working in Istanbul's harbour in 2020,[277] electric lorries are manufactured,[278] and an electricexcavator is planned for 2022.[279]Eti Mine Works produces small quantities oflithium carbonate locally, and plans to increase production for use in batteries. A battery factory is planned[280] by Aspilsan, which is part ofTurkey's defence industry,[281] andFord Otosan started makingelectric vans in 2022.[282] Over a quarter of a millioncharging stations are planned by 2030.[283] Building codes are being changed to mandate electric carcharging points in new shopping centres and car parks.[284]
Petrol and diesel taxes are lower than in the neighbouring EU[290]: 17 but higher than in oil-producing countries to the south.[291] Taxis could be better integrated with public transport.[292] However Istanbul taxi regulations are politically deadlocked.[293] The central government has drafted enabling regulations forlow-emission zones,[294] but as of 2025 no municipality has created one.[295] According to Shura three-quarters of emissions in the transport sector come from road freight transport.[296] Sales of fossil-fuelled road vehicles will be banned from 2040.[297][298]
These existing trees are being added to byreforestation.
Turkey has 23 million hectares of forest covering quarter of the country, though over 40% isdegraded woodland.[314]Turkey's forests are its maincarbon sink and offset 34 Mt of the country's emissions in 2021.[20]: 287 The government said in 2015 that by 2050 "forests are envisioned to stretch across over four-fifths of the country's territory".[315] However warmer and drier air in the south and west may make it difficult to sustain the present forest cover.[316] Due to forest fires and reduced productivity due to climate change trees are becoming less of a sink but,[23]: section 4.2.7 despite regional variations, forests are expected to remain an overall carbon sink.[317] Almost all Turkey's forest land belongs to the state and cannot be privatised. Privateafforestation permits have been issued however, to encourage tree planting in areas where tree density is low.[318]Civil society organizations, such as theTurkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion and theForesters' Association of Turkey, are also encouraging reforestation.[319] In 2019, an annual "National Forestation Day" every 11 November was established by President Erdoğan.[320]Junipers have been suggested for reforestation because of their hardiness, but are said to need help to regrow quickly.[321] But, according toEge University associate professor Serdar Gökhan Senol, theMinistry of Agriculture and Forestry sometimes replants when it should wait for regrowth instead.[322] In 2023 about 15 Mt was locked up inwood products.: 337 [better source needed]Wildfires emit carbon dioxide such as 10 Mt in 2021.[323]
Soil in Turkey containssoil organic carbon, which is estimated to total 3.5 billion tonnes at 30 centimetres (12 in) soil depth, with 36 t/ha in agricultural fields.[324] Soil organic carbon has been mapped:[325][324] this is important because carbon emissions from soil are directly related to climate change, but vary according to soil interaction[326]: 107 with low levels of soil organic carbon increasing the risk ofsoil erosion.[327] Turkey is a major producer ofmarble; it has been suggested that waste from the industry could capture carbon bycalcium looping.[328]
During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, growth of theTurkish economy, and to a lesser extent population, caused increased emissions from electricity generation,[329]: 10, 11 industry and construction,[330]: 59–62 as described by theenvironmental Kuznets curve hypothesis.[331] And from the 1990s to the 2010s they were correlated with electricity generation.[332] But during the 2010seconomic growth and the increase in emissions decoupled somewhat.[220]: 59 Since the 1970s the energy intensity of economic growth has fluctuated around 1kWh per 2011 USD,[333] whereas the carbon intensity of energy has fallen from 300g per kWh to 200g per kWh.[334] In 2018, the government forecast that GHG emissions were expected to increase in parallel with GDP growth over the next decade.[335]: 30 Once economic growth resumes afterthe debt crisis that began in 2018 and the country'sCOVID-19 recession, energy demand is also expected to grow. Nevertheless, Carbon Tracker says that it will be possible todecouple economic growth and emissions, by expanding the country's renewable-energy capacity and investing in energy efficiency with a sustainable energy policy.[330]: 63
On average the consumption-based CO2 emissions of one of the richest 10% of people in Turkey is more than double that of someone in the rest of the population,[336] as richer people tend to fly more and buy gasoline-fuelledSUVs.[337] Nevertheless 2019 studies disagree on whether Turkey's highincome inequality causes higher CO2 emissions.[338][339]
The long-term strategy says that public procurement will prioritize low-carbon products and services.[23]: section 4.2.2.1 While the government pledged to buy 30,000 locally made electric cars,[340] there were few explicit green measures in the 2020 package designed to aid recovery from the country's COVID-19 recession. On the contrary theVAT rate for domestic aviation was cut, and oil and gas were discounted.[341] Almost all the stimulus was detrimental to the environment; according to a 2021 report, only Russia's was less green.[342] Turkey has received climate finance from theGlobal Environment Facility, theClean Technology Fund, and various bilateral funding, but is not eligible for theGreen Climate Fund because of its status as adeveloped country under the UNFCCC.[217]: 43
Worldwide,marginal abatement cost studies show that improving the energy efficiency of buildings and replacing fossil fuelled power plants with renewables are usually the most cost-effective ways of reducing carbon emissions.[343] A 2017 study concluded that a US$50/tonne carbon price (similar to the 2021 EU price) would reduce emissions by about 20%, mainly by discouraging coal.[344] A more detailed 2020 study said that the electricity sector is key, and that low cost abatement is possible in the building sector.[345] The same study said that low levels of abatement in agriculture would be cheap, but high levels very expensive.[345] A 2021 study by Shura said that energy transition could increase national income by more than 1%, the largest part being wage increases due to higher skilled jobs,[346]: 8 such as in wind and solar power.[346]: 58 According to the study socioeconomic benefits, such as better health and wages, would be three times the financial cost.[346]: 15
Turkey'scarbon emissions are costly, even without carbon tariffs from other countries.[347] The short-term healthco-benefits of climate change mitigation have been estimated at $800 million for Turkey in the year 2028 alone.[74]: 6 As of 2022[update] investment in green energy is far smaller than the country's potential.[348] Academics have estimated that if Turkey and other countries invested in accordance with theParis Agreement, Turkey would break even around 2060.[349]: figure 4 A 2023 IMF working paper says that carbon pricing can be designed to support poor people.[350]
According to the OECD,fossil fuel subsidies in 2019 totalled over 25 billion lira (US$4.4 billion),[351] nearly 1% of GDP.[346]: 74 Economics professor Ebru Voyvoda has criticised growth policies based on the construction and real estate sectors, and said that moving from fossil fuels to electricity is important.[352] According to a 2020 report by theInternational Institute for Sustainable Development: "Turkey also lacks transparency and continues to provide support for coal production and fossil fuel use, predominantly by foregoing tax revenue and providingstate-owned enterprise investment."[353] A MWh of electricity from Turkish lignite emits over a tonne of CO2. Some electricity from these power stations is purchased bythe state electricity company at a guaranteed price of US$50–55/MWh until the end of 2027,[217]: 176 despite coal power subsidies being economically irrational.[352] Coal miners' wages are subsidised.[217]: 178
The Petroleum Market Law provides incentives for investors to explore for oil and produce it.[240]: 198 According to the OECD, in 2019 the fuel tax exemption fornaphtha,petroleum coke andpetroleum bitumen was a subsidy of 6.7 billion lira (US$1.2 billion), the largest of Turkey's fossil fuel subsidies that year.[354] Petcoke is used in cement production.[355] In other countries fossil fuel subsidies have been successfully scrapped by good communication from government, immediate cash transfers to poor people, energy price smoothing and energy transition support for households and firms.[356][357]
Boğaziçi University has developed a decision-support tool andintegrated assessment model for Turkey's energy and environmental policy.[358] Over 400 (about 9%) of the world'svoluntary carbon offset projects are in Turkey:[359] mostly wind, hydro, and landfill methane projects.[360][361] As elsewhere wildfires are a threat to forest carbon offsets.[362] The main standards are theGold Standard and theVerified Carbon Standard.[363] Earlier academic assessment suggested a revenue-neutral carbon tax might be best for the Turkish economy,[364] butcarbon emission trading is more likely to be accepted politically.[365] TheTurkish emissions trading system is due to start in 2025.[23]: section 4.8 Without a carbon tax or emissions trading, the country is vulnerable to carbon tariffs imposed by the EU,[366] the UK and otherexport partners.[367] Turkey received by far the most EU climate-change financing in 2018:[368] also the EBRD is investing in energy efficiency and renewable energy,[369] and has offered to support an equitable transition from coal.[370] Although there is no carbon price, other taxes in 2021 covered 39% of emissions[371]: 10 and were equivalent to a carbon price of 22.50 euros.[371]: 13
TheInternational Monetary Fund says G20 countries should make their high-emitting companies pay a carbon price, which should rise to $75 per tonne of CO2 by 2030.[372] The OECD recommends carbon pricing for all sectors,[373] but road fuel is currently Turkey's only major carbon pricing.[220]: 60 Taxes meet the social cost of road-transport carbon but not, however, the social cost of the country's air pollution.[374][375] However, all other sectors have a large gap between the actual tax (€6 per tonne of CO2 in 2018) and the tax with this negativeexternality; thus emitters do not bear the actual cost of most GHG, violating thepolluter pays principle.[374][375] Annual fossil fuel import cost savings of approximately $17 billion by meeting Paris Agreement goals have been estimated.[248]: 10 Turkish-American economistDaron Acemoğlu said in 2016 that carbon taxes alone do not generally act fast enough against dirty technologies, but that subsidising research into clean technologies is also necessary.[376]
Everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. It is the duty of the State and citizens to improve the natural environment, to protect the environmental health and to prevent environmental pollution.[377]
A similar clause in the constitution of the US state ofMontana has been used to declare laws that support fossil fuels unconstitutional.[378]
However, until production from large gas fields under the Black Sea begins in the mid-2020s, some in Turkey see burning local lignite as essential to lessen the high gas import bill.[379] Likewise, until local production of solar panels[235] and electric vehicles,[380] and mininglithium for batteries[280] all greatly increase, it is hard to avoid importing a lot of petroleum to make diesel and gasoline.[290]
TheJustice and Development Party (AK Party), led byRecep Tayyip Erdoğan, was elected to government in 2003 and has been in power almost continuously since then. Turkey ratified the UNFCCC in 2004, but says it is unfair that it is included amongst theAnnex I (developed) countries.[381] When the treaty was signed in 1992 Turkey had much lower emissions per person, and no historical responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions. So, theForeign Ministry argue that Turkey should have been grouped with non-Annex developing countries, which can receive climate finance from the Green Climate Fund.[382] Turkey ratified theKyoto Protocol in 2009.[383]
In a 2011 dispute over air pollution in Turkey, the main oppositionRepublican People's Party criticised the government for prioritising fossil fuels.[384] TheClimate Change and Air Management Coordination Board was created to coordinate government departments, and includes three business organisations.[385] The Environment Ministry chairs it, though other ministries have considerable influence over climate change policy. The Energy Ministry has an Environment and Climate Department (responsible for the GHG inventory) and theMinistry of Treasury and Finance leads on climate financing.[217]: 40
Turkey signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 but did not ratify it.[383] In 2015 Turkey declared its intention to achieve "up to a 21% reduction in GHG emissions from the Business as Usual level by 2030".[382] But because "Business as Usual" was assumed to be such a large increase, the "21% reduction" is an increase of over 7% per year[386] to around double the 2020 level.[387]
In 2019, Ümit Şahin, who teaches climate change atSabancı University, said that Turkey saw industrialised Western countries as solely responsible.[388]: 24 While discussing their limited actions on climate change, Turkey and other countries cited the forthcoming 2020United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement (not knowing at that time that the US would rejoin early the following year) .[389] Turkey was the 16th largestemitting country in 2019.[390][h]
During the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit on achievingcarbon neutrality by 2050, Turkey co-led the coalition on thedecarbonization of land transport.[391] As of 2019[update], the government aimed to keep the share of coal in the energy portfolio at around the same level in the medium and long term. This was explained, in part, because of Turkey's desire to have a diverse mix of energy sources. Rather than increase imports of gas, it wanted to retain domestic coal, albeit with safeguards to reduce the impact on human health and the environment.[114]: 20 İklim Haber (Climate News) andKONDA Research and Consultancy found in 2018 thatpublic opinion on climate change prefers solar and wind power.[392]
Although the transition to clean energy increases employment in Turkey as a whole,[346] for example in wind and solar power[74]: 6 and energy efficiency of buildings,[393] lost jobs may be concentrated in certain locations and sectors.[248]: 48 For example, closingŞırnak Silopi power station and the coal mines inŞırnak Province could increase already high unemployment there.[394][395] A 2021 study estimated the mining sector would employ 21 thousand fewer people, 14% of total mining employment in 2018.[346]: 57 The study also forecast job losses in textiles, agriculture and food processing, because such labour-intensive sectors would not be able to keep up with efficiency gains in other sectors.[346]: 13 Because carbon pricing would beregressive economists say that poor people should be compensated.[27]: 6 In 2024 the government said it will make a national policy for ajust transition;[23]: section 4.6 policy to quit high-carbon, such as coal, is lacking.[396] Similarly, it is hard for livestock farmers to make a profit,[113] so a sudden removal of subsidies would be an economic shock. But, unlike in neighbouring Greece,[397] there have been no public debates about a just transition.[398] According to former Economy MinisterKemal Derviş, many people will benefit from the green transition, but the losses will be concentrated on specific groups, making them more visible and politically disruptive.[399]At the municipal level,Antalya,Bornova,Bursa,Çankaya, Eskişehir Tepebaşı,Gaziantep,İzmir,Kadıköy,Maltepe,Nilüfer andSeferihisar havesustainable energy and climate plans.[400] A 2021 academic study of localclimate change politics said that "local climate action planning takes place independent from the national efforts yet with a commitment to international agreements" and that better co-ordination between local and national government would help planning forclimate change adaptation.[401] Turkey ratified the Paris Agreement in 2021: according toPolitico the country was persuaded by a 3.2 billion dollar loan from France and Germany for itsenergy transition, and Turkey's chief negotiator said the threat of the EU CBAM was a factor.[402]
Some suggest that limiting emissions through directives to the state-owned gas and electricity companies would be less effective than a carbon price, but would be more politically acceptable.[403] Turkish citizens are takingindividual and political action on climate change to the streets[404] and online,[405] including children demanding action[406] and petitioning the UN.[407][408]: 29 Turkey's Green Party is calling for an end to coal burning[390] and the phasing out of all fossil-fuel use by 2050.[409]TRT World calls natural gas "blue gold".
After the 2020/21 droughts, theNationalist Movement Party (the smaller party in the governing coalition) said that climate change is a national security issue.[410] The threat of climate change had already beensecuritized by Environment Minister Murat Kurum back in 2019.[411] Also following on from the droughts, all parties in parliament, including smaller opposition parties like thePeoples' Democratic Party and theGood Party, agreed to set up a Parliamentary Research Commission to combat climate change and drought.[412] A draft climate law, includingemissions trading, was considered in 2021[413] and a revised draft in 2023, but as of 2023[update] there is no emissions trading.[414] In 2023 there wasmisinformation about this draft, the draft aims to keep the tariff money within the country by startingcarbon emission trading.[415]
The national energy plan published in 2022 expected 1.7 GW more coal power to be built,[416] but the opposition CHP had already said that no more fossil fuel power plants should be built and that there should be carbon trading.[417] Businesses say the country needs to decarbonize so that money which would otherwise be lost to the CBAM remains in the country: NGOs and academics have such plans, however a February 2022 government-led "Climate Council" of all those groups and others issued over 200 recommendations,[418][419] but not one for coal phase out.[420] European Climate Action Network Turkey complained that civil society is not properly represented in decision making and in particular that there were no organizations such as theirs in the " Emission Reduction Commission" of the Climate Council.[421]
Despite theEnergy Ministry being represented on the board, in 2018 theEuropean Commission criticised the lack of co-ordination between the climate change policy andenergy policy of Turkey.[425] As of February 2019[update] energy policy still included mining more coal[426] and subsidizing coal-fired power stations.[427] As of 2022 the board's decisions are not binding.[428]
Although the Health and Agriculture Ministries coordinate with each other, there is no formal agreement between Health and Energy or Transport as of 2022.[429]
The board was replaced with the Climate Change and Adaptation Coordination Board (CCAMC) and a Climate Change Presidency was created,[430][431] (which seems to be just a different translation of the “Directorate of Climate Change”.[432]
Murat Kurum has said that global cooperation is key to tackling climate change,[433] and US climate change envoyJohn Kerry has said that the top 20 emitting countries should reduce emissions immediately.[434] Turkey and some other member countries say theEnergy Charter Treaty should be changed to help with decarbonization, but because changes must be unanimous this is unlikely to happen.[435]Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO) is in discussions with private-sector companies about investment in Black Sea fossil gas.[233] China fundedEmba Hunutlu coal-fired power station started up in 2022.
The government says that, as a developing country having less than 1% responsibility for historical greenhouse gas emissions, Turkey's position under the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement is not fair at all.[436] However some academics say that low historical greenhouse gas emissions can only be used as a fairness justification underinternational environmental law byleast developed countries andsmall island developing states.[437] They say that almost all G20 countries, including Turkey, should reduce their emissions below the 2010 level.[437] Nevertheless, the same academics say that countries with higher historical emissions should reduce emissions more.[437]
In 2022 the country promised, in its updated first nationally determined contribution(NDC), to cut greenhouse gas emissions 41% compared to business-as-usual by 2030: however this means Turkey's carbon footprint could increase to about 700 Mt by 2030,[443] with emissions peaking by 2038 or before.[24] Because the government says BAU is 1175 Mt CO2eq, whereasclimate activists say that the NDC should have promised an immediate actual reduction.[444] Academics doubt that emissions could be reduced from a 2038 peak to zero by 2053,[443] and say that delaying Turkey's energy transition is more expensive than starting it at once.[445] The 2053 target was reportedly set without consulting the Energy Ministry, and as of 2023 that ministry has not published a decarbonization roadmap.[446]
Although the OECD praised the government'smonitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) system and said in 2021 that it covers half of total emissions,[220]: 61 unlike the public sharing of data in theEU emission trading system, much detailed emissions data in Turkey is not public.[448] However in 2025 Hayrettin Kurt, Chairman of the Audit Committee at theWorld Energy Council Turkish National Committee, said that facility level data from theTurkish Emissions Trading System will be disclosed to the public.[449] Quantitative estimates of the impact of individual government policies on emissions have not been made or are not publicly available;[114]: 20 neither are projections of long-term policy impacts.[114]: 21 An expert review published on 2 April 2024 of Turkey's GHG report published in 2023 noted that over 50 recommendations made in previous expert reviews had not yet been addressed.[450] Space-based measurements of the signs of emissions has allowed public monitoring of themegacity of Istanbul and high emitting power plants since the early-2020s.[451][452]
TheMinistry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change coordinates activities to combat climate change in Turkey.[375] The Twelfth Development Plan (2024–2028) mentions adaptation.[453]: 218 A national strategy and action plan for 2024 to 2030 adaptation to climate change has been published,[454] but as of 2026[update] Turkey has yet to submit a National Adaptation Plan to theUNFCCC.[455][456]
Environmental activistGreta Thunberg and 15 other children filed a petition in 2019 protesting lack of action on theclimate crisis by Argentina, Brazil, France, Germany, and Turkey[471][472] saying that, amongst other dangers, more deadlyheat waves would affect them and other children in future.[473]: 29 The petition challenged the five countries under theConvention on the Rights of the Child:[474] "Comparable emissions to Turkey's rate of emissions would lead to more than 4°C of warming."[473]: 66 If the petition is successful, the countries will be asked to respond; however, any suggestions are not legally binding.[475][476] In 2020, Turkey and 32 other countries were sued at theEuropean Court of Human Rights by a group of Portuguese children.[477]
Article 56 of theConstitution of Turkey says that, "Everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. It is the duty of the State and citizens to improve the natural environment, to protect the environmental health and to prevent environmental pollution." Turkey has ratified the Paris Agreement and says thatits greenhouse gas emissions will benet zero by 2053, but the government has no plan to phase outcoal.[478] As of 2025 eight cases have been filed several of which are ongoing.[479]
In 2020 and 2021 sixteen nongovernment organizations filed lawsuits requesting thepresident shutdown 37 largecoal-fired power stations and over 600 mines.[480][481] In addition to climate change arguments the plaintiffs alleged that cancer cases are increased and theCOVID-19 pandemic was worsened by theirair pollution.[482] The case was rejected by the 11th administrative court of Ankara for various reasons.[483]
In 2023 young climate activists opened a case alleging that thenationally determined contribution (NDC) was inadequate.[484][485] The three youth climate activists filed a lawsuit againstPresident Erdoğan and theMinistry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change because Turkey's Nationally Determined Contribution is not to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. They alleged that there is no effective climate action plan forenergy. They alleged that these violate theirhuman rights stated in the constitution, such as the environmental clause in the constitution.[486] TheCouncil of State rejected the case on the grounds that it was an ‘annulment of an administrative action’ case but the NDC is not an administrative action.[487] As of 2025 the case is at theConstitutional Court.[488]
In 2022 and 2023 cases were brought aboutLake Marmara drying up.[489][490] In 2024 a court decided to pause the process of reclassifying the land as notwetland, on the grounds that it could be rewetted:Doğa are calling for the court to annul the reclassification.[491]
In the 1990s independentAçık Radyo (Open Radio) broadcast some of the firstmedia coverage of climate change, and its founderÖmer Madra(in Turkish) emphasises "The three Y's in the fight on climate change:Yerel (local)Yatay (horizontal) andYavaş (slow, no resort to violence)."[492] The station continues,[493] andİklim Haber (Climate News) also covers climate change issues in Turkish and English.[494] The climate impact ofcoal power is rarely discussed,[493] and nearly allTurkish media owners have financial interests in fossil fuels.[495]: 17, 20 The media covers climate change only during extreme weather events, with insufficient expert opinions or civil-society perspectives.[496]: 28 Somethink tanks, such asEmber, are respected by bothindustry and environmentalists.[493] Ufuk Alparslan, Ember's regional lead, says that readers are enthused bysolar power increasingenergy independence and reducing import costs, but are not much interested in the climate benefits.[493] The arts are raising awareness of climate change (although some are sponsored by companies whose environmental policies have been criticised[493]),[497] andeducation is supported by the EU.[498][499] Protests against opencast coal mining, such as atAkbelen Forest, have been covered by small media outlets such asYeşil Gazete andKaldıraç Magazine.[493]
2023 Survey - I expect to be displaced by climate change - Ipsos
Individual action on climate change is not properly understood (in a survey of primary school teachers many erroneously prioritised using less cosmetics) and neither are government choices onclimate change mitigation (in the same survey only a minority correctly prioritised curbing fossil fuel use).[500] Future warming of seawater byAkkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is wrongly thought by some to be relevant to climate change.[135]
İklim Haber (Climate News) andKONDA Research and Consultancy found in 2018 that over three-quarters ofpublic opinion on climate change thinks that extreme weather has increased.[501] Over 70% of the public acknowledge that current climate crisis is a result of human activities.[502] Some construction companies have been accused ofgreenwashing, advertising their buildings as environmentally friendly without obtaining anygreen building certificates.[503]
In a 2019E3G poll of sixBelt and Road Initiative countries (including Turkey), solar was the most popular energy source and coal the least popular.[504] Twenty-four Turkish cities committed to the Paris Agreement targets that year,[505] and theUnited Nations Development Programme partnered with theTurkish Basketball Federation in 2020 to raise public awareness of the fight against climate change.[506] A 2020 study found that the level of public support for a potential carbon tax does not depend on whether the proceeds are used for mitigation and adaptation.[507] In 2023 a draft law was proposed including public information and adding climate change toeducation in Turkey.[17] In 2024 a climateportal was created and Turkish citizens can log in to it.[508] Similar to global public opinion most Turks favour climate action.[509]
^Under IPCC guidelines, the energy sector includes fuel for transport.
^The carbon content (t/TJ), oxidation factor and CO2emission intensity (t/TJNCV), respectively, of lignite burnt in Turkish power stations in 2021 was as follows:[20]: 50 & 51, table 3.5, 3.6, 3.7
The extremely low-quality lignite is explained in detail inCoal in Turkey. The CO2 emission intensity (or emission factor) shown above is the mass of CO2 emitted for each unit of heat produced by burning a fuel. In contrast, the grid emission intensity is the mass of CO2e produced per unit of electricity supplied to theelectrical grid. Becausethermal power stations generally convert less than half of the heat energy into electrical energy,[63] their numbers for grid emission intensity are much greater than the emission intensity figures shown above.
^62 megatonnes would be emitted annually[69]: 319 if run at the targetedcapacity factor, whereas Turkey's current annual emissions are 506 megatonnes.By simple arithmetic, 62 megatonnes is more than 10% of 506+62 megatonnes.
^On average, somewhat over a million tonnes of CO2 was emitted for everyTWh of electricity generated in Turkey by coal-fired power stations in 2010.[68]: 177 This power station aims to generate just over 12.5 TWh (gross) per year.[69]: 346 The calculation in the EIA assumes an emission factor of 94.6 tCO2/TJ[69]: 319 Although the average is about 2,200, thenet calorific value of Turkish lignite varies from 1,000 to 6,000 kcal/kg.[20]: 59
^Emissions from international trips are not included in a country's emissions total, but fuel sales for international aviation can be found in Common Reporting Format category 1.A.3.a.1A. Turkey has joined theCarbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation.
^Gunacti, Mert Can; Gul, Gulay Onusluel; Cetinkaya, Cem P.; Gul, Ali; Barbaros, Filiz (1 May 2023). "Evaluating Impact of Land Use and Land Cover Change Under Climate Change on the Lake Marmara System".Water Resources Management.37 (6):2643–2656.Bibcode:2023WatRM..37.2643G.doi:10.1007/s11269-022-03317-8.ISSN1573-1650.S2CID252081287.
^ab"Turkey".G20 Climate Risk Atlas. 19 October 2021. Retrieved18 January 2026.
^Prashant Vaze; Archie Gilmour; Bengisu Ozenc; Evrim Ozyorulmaz-Akcura (25 December 2024)."Low-Carbon Transition Risks Facing Coal in Türkiye".SEFiA. Retrieved6 April 2025.These capacity payments have grown markedly over time and now provide an important revenue line for local coal (1.16 billion Turkish lira (TL) in 2023) and gas power (TL2.5 billion).
^"45.000 ton kömür alacak" [They will buy 45,000 tonnes of coal].Enerji Ekonomisi (in Turkish). 3 July 2018.Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved23 March 2019.
^Hoştut, Sibel; Deren van het Hof, Seçil (1 January 2020). "Greenhouse gas emissions disclosure: comparing headquarters and local subsidiaries".Social Responsibility Journal.16 (6):899–915.doi:10.1108/SRJ-11-2019-0377.ISSN1747-1117.S2CID219069970.
^Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam; Koven, Charlie; Leshyk, Victor; Lawrence, David; Loranty, Michael M.; Mauritz, Marguerite; Olefeldt, David; Natali, Susan; Rodenhizer, Heidi; Salmon, Verity; Schädel, Christina; Strauss, Jens; Treat, Claire; Turetsky, Merritt (2022)."Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic".Annual Review of Environment and Resources.47:343–371.Bibcode:2022ARER...47..343S.doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847.Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement...
^Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022)."Explainer: IPCC Scenarios".Cosmos.Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved30 September 2023."The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can.The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario.Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C.
^Baldasso, V.; Soncini, A.; Azzoni, R.S.; et al. (2018). "Recent evolution of glaciers in Western Asia in response to global warming: the case study of Mount Ararat, Turkey".Theor Appl Climatol.137 (1–2):45–59.Bibcode:2019ThApC.137...45B.doi:10.1007/s00704-018-2581-7.S2CID125700008.
^Turkes, Murat; Turp, M. Tufan; An, Nazan; Ozturk, Tugba; Kurnaz, M. Levent (2020), Harmancioglu, Nilgun B.; Altinbilek, Dogan (eds.), "Impacts of Climate Change on Precipitation Climatology and Variability in Turkey",Water Resources of Turkey, World Water Resources, vol. 2, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 467–491,doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_14,hdl:11729/2241,ISBN978-3-030-11729-0,S2CID198403431{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
^Bayram, Hasan; Öztürk, Ayşe Bilge (2021), Pinkerton, Kent E.; Rom, William N. (eds.), "Global Climate Change, Desertification, and Its Consequences in Turkey and the Middle East",Climate Change and Global Public Health, Respiratory Medicine, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 445–458,doi:10.1007/978-3-030-54746-2_21,ISBN978-3-030-54746-2{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
^abDifiglio, Prof.Carmine; Güray, BoraŞekip; Merdan, Ersin (November 2020).Turkey Energy Outlook.iicec.sabanciuniv.edu (Technical report). Sabanci University Istanbul International Center for Energy and Climate (IICEC).ISBN978-605-70031-9-5.
^"Sıfır Enerji ve Pasif Ev Derneği" [Zero energy and passive house association].Sıfır Enerji ve Pasif Ev Derneği – SEPEV (in Turkish).Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved7 March 2021.
^Yücedağ, Cengiz; Ayan, Sezgin; Farhat, Perla; Özel, Halil Barış (2021). "Juniperus L. for Restoration of Degraded Forest Lands in Turkey".South-east European Forestry.12 (1).doi:10.15177/seefor.21-01 (inactive 12 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
^"Carbon Markets".turkishcarbonmarket.com.Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved26 October 2020.
^Bavbek, Gökşin (October 2016)."Assessing the Potential Effects of a Carbon Tax in Turkey"(PDF).Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies (EDAM) Energy and Climate Change Climate Action Paper (6).Archived(PDF) from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved24 February 2019.
^Climate Action Tracker, Turkey."Turkey".Climate Action Tracker. Climate Action Tracker.Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved30 November 2020.
^Şahin, Ümit; Türkkan, Seçil (January 2019)."Turkey's Climate Policies Have Reached a Deadlock: It Takes Courage to Resolve It"(PDF).saha. Vol. Special Issue 2. pp. 24–30.ISSN2149-7885.According to him, Turkey's problem is not that it doesn't take climate change seriously, but that it downplays its share in creating the problem and sees industrialized Western countries as solely responsible
^Peker, Ender; Ataöv, Anlı (2021). "Barriers to Implementing Local Climate Action Plans in Turkey: Searching for a Potential Way Out". In Peker, Ender; Ataöv, Anlı (eds.).Governance of Climate Responsive Cities. The Urban Book Series. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 21–42.doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73399-5_3.ISBN978-3-030-73399-5.S2CID239744399.
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