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Climate-friendly gardening refers togardening practices that aim to reduce the release ofgreenhouse gases likecarbon dioxide,methane andnitrous oxide in order to aid the reduction ofglobal warming.^[1][2][3] These practices can includesoil management,rain capture, cultivatingnative plants, and utilizingbiochar,nitrogen-fixing plants andcompost in order to eliminate the use ofchemical fertilizers.^[4][5][6] Avoiding actions like burning garden waste, excessive digging and the utilization of gas-powered tools may also help to lower greenhouse gas emissions.^[1][4][7][8] Techniques such as planting trees and ground cover, utilizingmulch and limiting soil disturbances can aid insoil health and thesequestering of carbon in the soil.^[1][4]

The burning offossil fuels is the main source of the excessgreenhouse gases causingclimate change, but there are other sources to consider as well. A special report from theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated that, in the last 150 years, fossil fuels andcement production have been responsible for only about two-thirds of climate change while the other third has been caused by humanland use.^[9]

The three main greenhouse gases produced byunsustainable land use arecarbon dioxide,methane, andnitrous oxide.^[4][10]Black carbon, orsoot, can also be a product of unsustainable land use, and, despite not being a gas, it can behave like greenhouse gases and contribute to climate change.^[11][12]

Carbon dioxide, CO₂, is a natural part of thecarbon cycle, but humanland uses often creates excess amounts, especially fromhabitat destruction and thecultivation ofsoil. Whenwoodlands,wetlands, and other naturalhabitats are turned intopasture,arable fields, buildings and roads, thecarbon held in the soil and vegetation becomes extra carbon dioxide andmethane to extract more heat in theatmosphere.^[9]

Gardeners may cause extra carbon dioxide to be added to the atmosphere in several ways:

• Usingpeat orpotting compost containing peat;^{[1][4][13][14][7]}
• Buyinggarden furniture or otherwooden products made from woodland which has been destroyed rather than taken as arenewable crop fromsustainably managed woodland;^[2]
• Digging the soil and leaving it bare so that the carbon in soil organic matter isoxidised;^[1][4]
• Usingpower tools which burn fossil fuel orelectricity generated by burning fossil fuel;^[1][4][7][8]
• Usingpatio heaters;
• Heatinggreenhouses by burning fossil fuel or electricity generated by burning fossil fuel;^[4]
• Burninggarden prunings andweeds on abonfire, thoughpyrolysis of wood turns 35% of its carbon (which would otherwise decompose to CO₂) intobiochar,^[15] which remains stable in the soil for thousands of years;^[16]
• Buyingtools,pesticides,synthetic nitrogen fertilizers (over 2 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent is produced in the manufacture of each kilogram of ammonium nitrate^[17]), and other materials which have been manufactured using fossil fuel;^{[1][2][4][7][18][19][20]}
• Heating and treatingswimming pools by burning fossil fuel or electricity generated by burning fossil fuel;^[2]
• Watering their gardens withtapwater, which has been treated and pumped by burning fossil fuel, with a greenhouse gas impact of about 1 kg CO₂e/m³ water.^{[2][4][7][21][22]}
• Buying garden products which have been transported by vehicles powered by fossil fuel.^[2]

Methane, CH₄, is a natural part of thecarbon cycle, but humanland uses often add more, especially fromanaerobicsoil, artificialwetlands such asrice fields, and from theguts offarm animals, especiallyruminants such ascattle andsheep.^[23]

Gardeners may cause extra methane to be added to the atmosphere in several ways:

• Compacting soil so that it becomes anaerobic, for example by treading on soil when it is wet;
• Allowingcompost heaps to become compacted and anaerobic;^[4][24]
• Creating homemade liquid feed by putting the leaves of plants such ascomfrey under water, with the unintended consequence that the plants may release methane as theydecay;
• Killing perniciousweeds by covering them with water, with the unintended consequence that the plants may release methane as they decay;
• Allowingponds to become anaerobic, for example, by adding unsuitablefish species which stir up sediment that then blocks light from and killssubmerged oxygenating plants.^[25]

Nitrous oxide, N₂O, is a natural part of thenitrogen cycle, but humanland uses often add more.^[26][27]

Gardeners may cause extra nitrous oxide to be added to the atmosphere by:

• Using synthetic nitrogenfertilizer, for example "weed and feed" onlawns, especially if it is applied when plants are not actively growing, the soil is compacted, or when other factors are limiting so that the plants cannot make use of the nitrogen;^[21][28][29]
• Compacting the soil, such as by working in the garden when the soil is wet, which will increase the conversion ofnitrates to nitrous oxide by soil bacteria;^[28]
• Burning garden waste onbonfires.

Black carbon is not a gas, but it acts like a greenhouse gas because it can besuspended in the atmosphere and absorbheat.^[11][12]

Gardeners may cause extra black carbon to be added to the atmosphere by burning gardenprunings andweeds on bonfires, especially if the waste is wet and becomes black carbon in the form of soot.^[5] Gardeners are also responsible for extra black carbon produced when they buy garden products which have been transported by vehicles powered byfossil fuel especially thediesel used in mostlorries.

There are many ways in which climate-friendly gardeners may reduce their contribution to climate change and help their gardens absorbcarbon dioxide from the atmosphere.^{[1][2][4][7][28][30]}

Climate-friendly gardeners can find good ideas in many othersustainable approaches:

• Agroforestry;
• Forest gardening;
• Orchards;
• Organic gardening;[1]
• Permaculture;
• Rain garden;
• Vegan organic gardening;
• Water-wise gardening;
• Wildlife garden;
• Biochar.^[16]

Climate-friendly gardening includes actions which protectcarbon stores beyond gardens. The biggest carbon stores in land are in soil; the two habitat types with the biggest carbon stores per hectare arewoods andwetlands; and woods absorb more carbon dioxide per hectare per year than most other habitats. Climate-friendly gardeners therefore aim to ensure that nothing they do will harm these habitats.

According to Morison and Morecroft (eds.)'sPlant Growth and Climate Change,^[31] thenet primary productivity (the net amount of carbon absorbed each year) of various habitats is:

• Tropical forests: 12.5 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year;
• Temperate forests: 7.7 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year;
• Temperate grasslands: 3.7 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year;
• Croplands: 3.1 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year.

TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special ReportLand use, land-use change, and forestry ^[9] lists the carbon contained in different global habitats as:

• Wetlands: 643 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 43 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 686 tonnes carbon per hectare;
• Tropical forests: 123 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 120 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 243 tonnes carbon per hectare;
• Temperate forests: 96 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 57 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 153 tonnes carbon per hectare;
• Temperate grasslands: 164 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 7 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 171 tonnes carbon per hectare;
• Croplands: 80 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 2 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 82 tonnes carbon per hectare.

The figures quoted above are global averages. More recent research in 2009 has found that the habitat with the world's highest known total carbon density - 1,867 tonnes of carbon per hectare - is temperate moist forest ofEucalyptus regnans in the Central Highlands of south-eastAustralia; and, in general, that temperate forests contain more carbon than eitherboreal forests or tropical forests.^[32]

According to Milne and Brown's 1997 paper "Carbon in the vegetation and soils of Great Britain",^[33]Britain'svegetation and soil are estimated to contain 9952 million tonnes of carbon, of which almost all is in the soil, and most inScottishpeatland soil:

• Soils in Scotland: 6948 million tonnes carbon;
• Soils inEngland andWales: 2890 million tonnes carbon;
• Vegetation in Britishwoods andplantations (which cover only 11% of Britain's land area): 91 million tonnes carbon;
• Other vegetation: 23 million tonnes carbon.

A 2005 report^[34] suggested that British woodland soil may contain as much as 250 tonnes of carbon per hectare.

Many studies ofsoil carbon only study the carbon in the top 30 centimetres, but soil is often much deeper than that, especially below woodland. One 2009 study of theUnited Kingdom'scarbon stores by Keith Dyson and others gives figures for soil carbon down to 100 cm below thehabitats, including "Forestland", "Cropland" and "Grassland", covered by theKyoto Protocol reporting requirements.^[35]

• Forestland soils: average figures in tonnes carbon per hectare are 160 (England), 428 (Scotland), 203 (Wales), and 366 (Northern Ireland).
• Grassland soils: average figures in tonnes carbon per hectare are 148 (England), 386 (Scotland), 171 (Wales), and 304 (Northern Ireland).
• Cropland soils: average figures in tonnes carbon per hectare are 110 (England), 159 (Scotland), 108 (Wales), and 222 (Northern Ireland).

Climate-friendly gardeners choosepeat-freecomposts^[1][4][7] because some of the planet's biggestcarbon stores are insoil, and especially in thepeatland soil ofwetlands.

TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special ReportLand Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry gives a figure of 2011 gigatonnes of carbon for global carbon stocks in the top 1 metre of soils, much more than the carbon stores in the vegetation or the atmosphere.^[9]

Climate-friendly gardeners also avoid usingtapwater not only because of thegreenhouse gases emitted when fossil fuels are burnt to treat and pump water,^[1] but because if water is taken from wetlands, the carbon stores are more likely to be oxidized tocarbon dioxide.^[9]

A climate-friendly garden therefore does not contain largeirrigatedlawns, but instead includeswater-butts to collectrainwater, water-thrifty plants which survive on rainwater and do not need watering after they are established,trees,shrubs andhedges toshelter gardens from the drying effects ofsun andwind, andgroundcover plants andorganic mulch to protect the soil and keep it moist.^{[2][4][5]p. 242[7]p. 80–82[36]}

Climate-friendly gardeners will ensure that any paved surfaces in their gardens (which are kept to a minimum to increase carbon stores) arepermeable,^[7] and may also makerain gardens, sunken areas into which rainwater from buildings and paving is directed, so that the rain can then be fed back intogroundwater rather than going intostorm drains. The plants in rain gardens must be able to grow in both dry and wet soils.^[2][37]

Wetlands may store the most carbon in their soils, but woods store more carbon in their livingbiomass than any other type of vegetation, and their soils store the most carbon after wetlands.^[9] Climate-friendly gardeners therefore ensure that any wooden products they buy, such asgarden furniture, have been made of wood fromsustainably managed woodland.

Afterrocks containing carbonate compounds, soil is known to be the biggeststore of carbon on land.^[9]Carbon is found insoil organic matter, including living organisms (plant roots,fungi,animals,protists,bacteria), dead organisms, andhumus.^[4]One study of the environmental benefits of gardens estimates that 86% of carbon stores in gardens is in the soil.^[38]

The first priorities for climate-friendly gardeners are therefore, to:

• Protect the soil's existing carbon stores;
• Increase the soil's carbon stores.
• Choose low-emission garden products and practices.
• Preventing erosion and keeping weeds down.
• Planting of trees and shrubs.
• By heat-trapping nitrous oxide emissions related to fertilizer use and generous watering.

To protect the soil, climate-friendly gardens:

• Are based onplants rather than buildings and paving;^[8][38]
• Have soil that is kept at a relatively stable temperature byshelter from trees, shrubs and/or hedges;^[39]
• Have soil that is always kept covered and therefore moist and at a relatively stable temperature bygroundcover plants, fast-growinggreen manures (which can be used as anintercrop inkitchen gardens ofannual vegetables) and/ororganic mulches.^[1][39][40]

Climate-friendly gardeners avoid things which may harm the soil. They do not tread on the soil when it is wet, because it is by then most vulnerable to compaction. Theydig andtill the soil as little as possible, and only when the soil is moist rather than wet, because cultivation increases theoxidation of soil organic matter and producescarbon dioxide.^{[2][7]p. 54–55[38][39][41]}

To increase soil carbon stores, climate-friendly gardeners ensure that their gardens create optimal conditions for various vigorous healthy growth of plants, and other garden organisms above and below the ground, and reduce the impact of anylimiting factors.

In general, the morebiomass that the plants can create each year, the more carbon at which will be added to the soil.^{[7]p. 54–55[40]}However, only some biomass each year becomes long-termsoil carbon or humus. InSoil Carbon and Organic Farming, a 2009 report from theSoil Association, Gundula Azeez discusses severalfactors which increase how much biomass is turned into humus. These include goodsoil structure,soil organisms such as fineroot hairs,microorganisms,mycorrhizas andearthworms which increasessoil aggregation, residues from plants (such as trees and shrubs) which have a high level content of resistant chemicals such aslignin, and plant residues with acarbon to nitrogen ratio lower than about 32:1.^[42]

Climate-friendly gardens therefore include:

• Hedges for shelter from wind;^[39][40]
• A light canopy of late-leafingdeciduous trees to let in enoughsunlight for growth but not so much that the garden becomes too hot and dry^[40] (this is one of the principles behind manyagroforestry systems, such asPaulownia's use in China partly because it is late-leafing and itscanopy is sparse so thatcrops below it get shelter but also enough light^[43]);
• Groundcover plants and organic mulches (such aswoodchips overcompost made from kitchen and garden "waste") to keep soil moist and at relatively stable temperatures;^[39][40]
• Reducing the use of gas-powered lawn and garden equipment in favor of electric-powered devices. Instead of a leaf blower, using a rake or broom will cut down on gas emissions that contribute to climate change.
• Nitrogen-fixing plants, because soil nitrogen may be a limiting factor (but climate-friendly gardeners avoidsynthetic nitrogen fertilizers, because these may cause mycorrhizal associations to break down);^[40]
• Many layers^[40] of plants, includingwoody plants such as trees^[7] and shrubs, otherperennials, groundcover plants, deep-rooted plants, all chosen according to 'right plant, right place',^[44][45] so that they are suited to their growing conditions and will grow well;
• A widediversity ofdisease-resistant, vigorous plants forresilience and to make the most of all availableecological niches;^[38][40]
• Plants tofeed and shelter wildlife, to increase total biomass, and to ensurebiological control of pests and diseases.^[46][8][47]
• Soil amendments fromwaste products such as compost made from garden and kitchen "waste"^[7] and biochar from pyrolyzed dried, dead wood.^[16]
• Maximise the ventilation and shading around the home as much as possible during the summer.

Lawns, like other grasslands, can build up good levels ofsoil carbon,^[42] but they will grow much more vigorously and store more carbon if besidesgrasses, they also contain nitrogen-fixing plants such asclover,^[4] and if they are cut down using amulching mower which returns finely-chopped mowings to the lawn. More carbon, however, may be stored by other perennial plants such as trees^[7] and shrubs and they also do not need to be maintained usingpower tools.

Climate-friendly gardeners will also aim to increase biodiversity not only for the sake of the wildlife itself, but so that the garden ecosystem is resilient and more likely to store as much carbon as possible as long as possible. They will therefore avoid pesticides,^[7] and increase the diversity of the habitats within their gardens.

Climate-friendly gardeners can directly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from their own gardens, but can also use their gardens to indirectly reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere.

Climate-friendly gardeners can use their gardens in ways which reducegreenhouse gases elsewhere, for example by using the sun and wind to drywashing onwashing lines in the garden instead of usingelectricitygenerated byfossil fuel to dry washing intumble dryers.

Food is a major contributor to climate change. In the United Kingdom, according to Tara Garnett of theFood Climate Research Network, food contributes 19% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions.^[48]

Soil is the biggeststore of carbon onland. It is therefore important to protect thesoil organic matter infarmland. Farm animals; however, especially free-range pigs, may cause erosion, and also the cultivation of the soil increases theoxidation of soil organic matter intocarbon dioxide.^[41] Other sources of greenhouse gases from farmland include: compaction caused by farm machinery or overgrazing byfarm animals can make soilanaerobic and producemethane, which is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices, land use and by the decay of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills; farm animals produce methane; andnitrogen fertilizers can be converted tonitrous oxide which is also emitted during agricultural, land use, and industrial activities; combustion of fossil fuels and solid wastes; as well as during treatment of wastewater.

Most farmland consists offields growing annual arable crops which are eaten directly by people or fed to farm animals, andgrassland used aspasture,hay orsilage to feed farm animals. Someperennial food plants are also grown, such asfruits andnuts inorchards, andwatercress grown in water.

Although all cultivation of the soil in arable fields produces carbon dioxide, some arable crops cause more damage to soil than others.Root crops such aspotatoes andsugar-beet, and crops which are harvested not just once a year but over a long period such asgreen vegetables and salads, are considered "high risk" incatchment-sensitive farming.^[49][50]

Climate-friendly gardeners therefore grow at least some of their food,^[7] and may choosefood crops which therefore help to keep carbon in farmlandsoils if they grow such high-risk crops in smallvegetable plots in their gardens, where it is easier to protect the soil than in large fields undercommercial pressures. Climate-friendly gardeners may grow and eat plants such as sweetcicely which sweeten food, and so reduce the land area needed for sugar-beet.^[51] They may also choose to growperennial food plants to not only reduce their indirect greenhouse gas emissions from farmland, but also to increase carbon stores in their own gardens.^{[40][51][52][53]}

Grassland contains more carbon per hectare than arable fields, but farm animals, especiallyruminants such ascattle orsheep, produce large amounts of methane, directly and from manure heaps and slurry.^[23] Slurry and manure may also produce nitrous oxide.^[29][54] Gardeners who want to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions can help themselves to eat lessmeat anddairy produce by growingnut trees which are a good source oftasty,protein-richfood, includingwalnuts which are an excellent source of theomega-3 fatty acidalpha-linolenic acid.^[55]

Researchers and farmers are investigating and improving ways of farming which are more sustainable, such asagroforestry,forest farming,wildlife-friendly farming,soil management,catchment-sensitive farming (or water-friendly farming^[56]). For example, the organisationFarming Futures assists farmers in the United Kingdom to reduce their farms' greenhouse gas emissions.^[57]

Farmers are aware that consumers are increasingly asking for "green credentials". Gardeners who understand climate-friendly practices can advocate their use by farmers.^[1]

Climate-friendly gardeners aim to reduce their consumption in general.^[7] In particular, they try to avoid or reduce their consumption of tapwater because of the greenhouse gases emitted when fossil fuels are burnt to supply the energy needed to treat and pump it to them.^[1] Instead, gardeners can garden using only rainwater.^[2][36]

Greenhouse gases are produced in themanufacture of many materials and products used bygardeners. For example, it takes a lot ofenergy to producesynthetic fertilizers, especially nitrogen fertilizers.Ammonium nitrate, for example, has anembodied energy of 67,000 kilojoules/kilogramme,^[2] soclimate-friendly gardeners will choose alternative ways of ensuring the soil in their gardens has optimal levels of nitrogen by alternative means such asnitrogen-fixing plants.

Climate-friendly gardeners will also aim to follow "cradle-to-cradle design" and "circular economy" principles: when they choose to buy or make something, it should be possible to take it apart again andrecycle orcompost every part, so that there is no waste, onlyraw materials to be made into something else.^[58] This will reduce the greenhouse gases otherwise produced whenextracting raw materials.

Gardeners can reduce not only theirfood miles by growing some of their own food, but also their "gardening miles" by reducing the amount of plants and other materials they import, obtaining them as locally as possible and with as little packaging as possible. This might include ordering plants bymail order from a specialist nursery if the plants are sent outbare-root, reducing transport demand and the use ofpeat-based composts; or growing plants fromseed, which will also increasegenetic diversity and thereforeresilience; or growing plantsvegetatively fromcuttings oroffsets from other local gardeners; or buying reclaimed materials from salvage firms.^[7]

Climate-friendly gardeners can use their gardens in ways which reduce greenhouse gas emissions from homes by:

• Using sunlight and wind to dry washing on washing lines instead of fossil fuel-generated electricity to runtumble dryers;
• Plantingdeciduousclimbers on houses and planting deciduous trees at suitable distances from the house to provide shade during the summer, reducing the consumption of electricity forair conditioning, but also such that at cooler times of year, sunlight can reach and warm a house, reducingheating costs and consumption;^[5][38]
• Planting hedges, trees, shrubs and climbers to shelter houses from wind, reducing heating costs and consumption during the winter (as long as any planting does not create awind-tunnel effect).^{[5]p. 243[38]}

Climate-friendly gardeners may also choose to reduce their own personal greenhouse gas emissions by growing and eatingcarminative plants such asfennel andgarlic which reduce intestinal gases such as methane.^[59]

There are some patent sources of greenhouse gas emissions in gardens and some more latent.

Power tools which are powered bydiesel orpetrol, orelectricitygenerated by burning otherfossil fuels, emitcarbon dioxide. Climate-friendly gardeners may therefore choose to usehand tools rather than power tools, or power tools powered by renewable electricity,^[7] ordesign their gardens to reduce or remove a need to use power tools. For example, they may choose dense, slow-growing species forhedges so that the hedges only need to be cut once a year.^[8]

Turning one's thermostat equipment down to 3 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter and up to 3 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer will help reduce carbon dioxide emissions by about 1,050 pounds per year.

In place of a water-thirsty lawn that requires a lot of fertilizers and herbicides to be kept green and weed-free, native vegetation may be planted. This can be maintained with can a drip irrigation system to run by a "smart" sprinkler control. These "smart" sprinklers can determine whether it has rained recently and will not water the plants if it has. They are also system programmable relative to certain types of plants, as opposed to zones, so if certain plants need more water than others, they get it without drowning out other less water-loving plants.

Lawns are often cut by lawn mowers and, in drier parts of the world, are often irrigated by tapwater. Climate-friendly gardeners will therefore do what they can to reduce this consumption by:

• Replacing part of or all lawns with other perennial planting such as trees and shrubs with less ecologically demanding maintenance requirements;
• Cut some or all lawns only once or twice a year, i.e. convert them intomeadows;
• Make lawn shapes simple so that they may be cut quickly;
• Increase the cutting height of mower blades;
• Use a mulching mower to return organic matter to the soil;
• Sowclover to increase vigour (without the need for synthetic fertilisers) and resilience in dry periods;
• Cut lawns withelectric mowers using electricity fromrenewable energy;
• Cut lawns with hand tools such aspush mowers orscythes.^{[1][4][7][39]}

Greenhouses can be used to grow crops which might otherwise be imported from warmer climates, but if they are heated by fossil fuel, then they may cause more greenhouse gas emissions than they save. Climate-friendly gardeners will therefore use their greenhouses carefully by:

• Choosing only annual plants which will only be in the greenhouse during warmer months, or perennial plants which do not need any extra heat during winter;
• Using water tanks as heat stores and compost heaps as heat sources inside greenhouses so that they stay frost-free in winter.

Climate-friendly gardeners will not put woody prunings on bonfires, which will emit carbon dioxide and black carbon due to the high oxygen content of such fires,^[5] but instead burn them indoors in awood-burning stove and therefore cut emissions from fossil fuel, or cut them up to use asmulch and increase soil carbon stores,^[7] makebiochar bypyrolysis,^[16] or add the smaller prunings to compost heaps to keep themaerated, reducingmethane emissions.^[24] To reduce the risk of fire, they will also choose fire-resistant plants from habitats which are not prone towildfires and which do not catch fire easily, rather than fire-adaptedplants from fire-prone habitats, which are flammable and adapted to encourage fires and then gain a competitive advantage over less resistant species.

Climate-friendly gardeners may use deep-rooted plants such ascomfrey to bring nutrients closer to the surfacetopsoil, but will do so without making the leaves into a liquid feed, because the rotting leaves in theanaerobic conditions under water may emit methane.

Nitrogen fertilizers may beoxidised tonitrous oxide,^[7] especially if fertilizer is applied in excess, or when plants are not actively growing. Climate-friendly gardeners may choose instead to usenitrogen-fixing plants which will add nitrogen to the soil without increasing nitrous oxide emissions.

• Agroforestry
• Energy-efficient landscaping
• Foodscaping
• Forest gardening
• Green building
• List of organic gardening and farming topics
• Orchard
• Organic gardening
• Permaculture
• Rain garden
• Sustainabledesign /gardening /landscaping andlandscape architecture /living
• Vegan organic gardening
• Water-wise gardening
• Wildlife gardening

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• Tara Garnett (2008),Cooking up a Storm: Food, greenhouse gas emissions and our changing climate, Guildford: Food Climate Research Network, Centre for Environmental Strategy, University of Surrey.
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• Wall, Bardgettet al (2013),Soil Ecology and Ecosystem Services, Oxford University Press (ISBN 9780199688166).
• Watson, Nobleet al (2000),Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report), Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press (ISBN 9780521800839).

• Learning from Nature
• Gardening in a Changing Climate, Royal Horticultural Society.
• Watson, Nobleet al (2000), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report:Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press (ISBN 9780521800839).
• Richard Bisgrove and Paul Hadley (2002),Gardening in the Global Greenhouse: The impacts of climate change on gardens in the UK, Oxford: UK Climate Impacts Programme.
• Sara J. Scherr and Sajal Sthapit (2009),Mitigating Climate Change through Food and Land Use, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, United States of America (ISBN 9781878071910).
• Plants for a Future

• Emissions reduction
• Sustainable gardening
• Climate change and agriculture

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