America ,Western Hemisphere Cultural regions of North American people at the time of contact Early Indigenous languages in the US Historically,classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas is based upon cultural regions, geography, and linguistics. Anthropologists have named various cultural regions, with fluid boundaries, that are generally agreed upon with some variation. These cultural regions are broadly based upon the locations of theIndigenous peoples of the Americas from early European and African contact beginning in the late 15th century. When Indigenous peoples have beenforcibly removed by nation-states, they retain their original geographic classification. Some groups span multiple cultural regions. Peoples can also be classified by genetics, technology, and social structure.
[ edit ] In theUnited States andCanada ,ethnographers commonly classifyIndigenous peoples into ten geographical regions with sharedcultural traits, called cultural areas.[ 1] Greenland is part of theArctic region . Some scholars combine the Plateau and Great Basin regions into the Intermontane West, some separate Prairie peoples from Great Plains peoples, while some separate Great Lakes tribes from the Northeastern Woodlands.
Inuktitut dialect map Early Indigenous languages in Alaska Paleo-Eskimo , precontact cultures, Russia, Alaska, Canada, Greenland, 2500 BCE–1500 CEArctic small tool tradition , precontact culture, 2500 BCE, Bering StraitPre-Dorset , eastern Arctic, 2500–500 BCESaqqaq culture , Greenland, 2500–800 BCEIndependence I , northeastern Canada and Greenland, 2400–1800 BCEIndependence II culture , northeastern Canada and Greenland, 800–1 BCE)Groswater culture , Labrador and Nunavik, CanadaDorset culture , 500 BCE–1500 CE, Alaska, CanadaAleut (Unangan ), Aleutian Islands of Alaska, and Kamchatka Krai, RussiaInuit , Russia, Alaska, Canada, GreenlandYupik peoples (Yup'ik ), Alaska and RussiaAhtna (Ahtena, Nabesna), AlaskaAnishinaabe –see alsoNortheastern Woodlands Oji-Cree (Anishinini, Severn Ojibwa) Ontario, ManitobaOjibwa (Chippewa ,Ojibwe ) Ontario, Manitoba, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, North DakotaAtikamekw , QuebecCree , Central and Eastern Canada, North DakotaDakelh (Carrier ), British ColumbiaDeg Hit’an (Deg Xinag, Degexit’an, Kaiyuhkhotana), Alaska[ 2] Dena’ina (Tanaina ), AlaskaDene people , Alaska, Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, ManitobaChipewyan , Alaskan interior, Western CanadaTłı̨chǫ (Tlicho ), Northwest TerritoriesYellowknives (T'atsaot'ine ), Northwest TerritoriesSlavey (Awokanak ,Slave ,Deh Gah Got'ine ,Deh Cho ), Alberta, British Columbia[ 3] Sahtú (North Slavey ,Bearlake ,Hare ,Mountain ), Northwest TerritoriesGwich'in (Kutchin ,Loucheaux ), Alaska, YukonDane-zaa (Beaver ,Dunneza ), Alberta, British ColumbiaHän , Alaska, YukonHolikachuk , AlaskaInnu (Montagnais ), Labrador, QuebecKaska Dena (Nahane ), YukonKolchan (Upper Kuskokwim )Koyukon , AlaskaNaskapi , Quebec, Newfoundland and LabradorSekani (Tse'khene ), British ColumbiaTagish , YukonTahltan , British ColumbiaTanana Athabaskans (Tanacross ), AlaskaPacific Northwest coast [ edit ] Of the Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast, it is widely agreed upon by scholars that that the area north of theHaisla represents a cultural subarea, called the "Northern" or "Northern Maritime" area. However, south of this, there is a deal of disagreement on the existence of any subareas, especially south ofVancouver Island .[ 4]
Chelan , WACoeur d'Alene Tribe , ID, MT, WAEntiat , WAFlathead (Selisch or Salish), ID, MTKalispel (Pend d'Oreilles ), MT, WAIn-SHUCK-ch , BC (Lower Lillooet)Lil'wat , BC (Lower Lillooet)Methow , WANespelem , WANlaka'pamux (Thompson people), BCNicola people (Thompson-Okanagan confederacy)Sanpoil , WASecwepemc , BC (Shuswap people)Sinixt (Lakes), BC, ID, and WASinkayuse (Sinkiuse-Columbia ), WA (extinct)Spokane people , WASyilx (Okanagan ), BC, WASt'at'imc , BC (Upper Lillooet)Wenatchi (Wenatchee), WACowlitz , (Upper Cowlitz, Taidnapam), WashingtonKlickitat , WashingtonNez Perce , IdahoTenino (Tygh, Warm Springs), OregonUmatilla , Idaho, OregonWalla Walla , WAWanapum , WAWauyukma , WAWyam (Lower Deschutes), ORYakama , WACayuse , Oregon, WashingtonCelilo (Wayampam ), OregonCowlitz , WashingtonKalapuya , northwest OregonKlamath , OregonKutenai (Kootenai ,Ktunaxa ), British Columbia, Idaho, and MontanaLower Snake people:Chamnapam ,Wauyukma ,Naxiyampam , Washington Modoc , formerly California, now Oklahoma and OregonMolala (Molale), OregonNicola Athapaskans (extinct), British ColumbiaPalus (Palouse), Idaho, Oregon, and WashingtonUpper Nisqually (Mishalpan ), WashingtonIndigenous peoples of theGreat Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes.
Anishinaabeg (Anishinape, Anicinape, Neshnabé, Nishnaabe) (see alsoSubarctic ,Northeastern Woodlands )Saulteaux (Nakawē), Manitoba, Minnesota and Ontario; later Alberta, British Columbia, Montana, SaskatchewanOdawa people (Ottawa), Ontario,[ 7] Potawatomi , Michigan,[ 7] Apache (see alsoSouthwest )Arapaho (Arapahoe), formerly Colorado, currently Oklahoma and WyomingArikara (Arikaree, Arikari, Ree), North DakotaAtsina (Gros Ventre), MontanaBlackfoot Cheyenne , Montana, OklahomaComanche , Oklahoma, TexasPlains Cree , MontanaCrow (Absaroka, Apsáalooke), MontanaEscanjaques , OklahomaHidatsa , North DakotaIowa (Ioway), Kansas, Nebraska, OklahomaKaw (Kansa, Kanza), OklahomaKiowa , OklahomaMandan , North DakotaMétis people (Canada) , North Dakota, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, AlbertaMissouri (Missouria), OklahomaOmaha , NebraskaOsage , Oklahoma, formerly Arkansas, MissouriOtoe (Oto), OklahomaPawnee , OklahomaPonca , Nebraska, OklahomaQuapaw , formerly Arkansas, OklahomaSioux Dakota , Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Manitoba, SaskatchewanSantee , NebraskaYankton , South DakotaYanktonai , formerly Minnesota, currently Montana, North Dakota, and South DakotaLakota (Teton), Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, SaskatchewanNakoda (Stoney), AlbertaNakota ,Assiniboine (Assiniboin), Montana, SaskatchewanTeyas , TexasTonkawa , OklahomaTsuu T’ina , (Sarcee, Sarsi, Tsuut’ina), AlbertaWichita and Affiliated Tribes (Kitikiti'sh ), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and KansasKichai (also related to theCaddo ), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and KansasTaovayas (Tawehash ), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and KansasTawakoni , Oklahoma, formerly Texas and KansasWaco (Iscani ,Yscani ), Oklahoma, formerly TexasWichita proper ,Guichita ,Rayados , Oklahoma, formerly Texas and KansasNortheastern Woodlands [ edit ] Annamessex , Annemessex, formerlyEastern Shore of Maryland Anishinaabeg (Anishinape, Anicinape, Neshnabé, Nishnaabe) (see alsoSubarctic ,Plains )Algonquin ,[ 9] Nipissing ,[ 9] [ 7] Ojibwe (Chippewa, Ojibwa, Ojibway), Ontario, Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin,[ 7] Odawa people (Ottawa), Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Ontario;[ 7] Potawatomi , Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,[ 7] Accomac people , formerlyEastern Shore of Virginia Adena culture (1000–200 BCE) formerly Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia, Kentucky, New York, Pennsylvania, and MarylandAssateague , formerly Maryland[ 10] Attawandaron (Neutral Confederacy ), formerly Ontario[ 7] Beothuk , formerly Newfoundland[ 7] Chowanoc ,Chowanoke , formerly North CarolinaChoptank people , formerly Maryland[ 10] Conoy , Virginia,[ 10] Fort Ancient culture (1000–1750 CE), formerly Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and West VirginiaErie , formerly Pennsylvania, New York[ 7] Etchemin , formerly MaineHo-Chunk (Winnebago ), southern Wisconsin and Nebraska, formerly northern Illinois,[ 7] Honniasont , formerly Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West VirginiaHopewell tradition , formerly Ohio, Illinois, and Kentucky, andBlack River region, 200 BCE–500 CEHousatonic , formerly Massachusetts and New York[ 11] Illinois Confederacy (Illiniwek ), formerly Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri[ 7] Cahokia , formerly Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, currently OklahomaKaskaskia , formerly Wisconsin, currently OklahomaMitchigamea , formerly Illinois, currently OklahomaPeoria , Illinois, currently OklahomaMoingona , formerly Illinois, currently OklahomaTamaroa , formerly Illinois, currently OklahomaIroquois Confederacy [ 9] Haudenosaunee ), currently Ontario, Quebec, and New York[ 7] Cayuga , currently New York,[ 7] Mohawk , New York,[ 7] Oneida , New York,[ 7] Onondaga , New York,[ 7] Seneca , New York,[ 7] Mingo , formerly Pennsylvania, Ohio, West VirginiaTuscarora , formerly North Carolina, currently New York and OntarioKickapoo , formerly Michigan,[ 7] Laurentian (St. Lawrence Iroquoians ), formerly New York, Ontario, and Quebec, ca. 1300–1580 CELenni Lenape (Delaware ), formerly Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey; currently Ontario, Wisconsin and OklahomaMunsee -speaking subgroups, formerly Long Island and southeastern New York;[ 12] Canarsie (Canarsee ), formerly Long Island New York[ 13] Esopus , formerly New York,[ 12] Hackensack , formerly New York[ 12] Haverstraw (Rumachenanck ), New York[ 14] Kitchawank (Kichtawanks ,Kichtawank ), New York[ 14] Minisink , formerly New York[ 12] Navasink ,[ 14] Sanhican (Raritan), formerly Monmouth County, New JerseySinsink (Sintsink ), formerly Westchester County, New York[ 14] Siwanoy , formerly New York and ConnecticutTappan , formerly New York[ 15] Waoranecks [ 16] Wappinger (Wecquaesgeek ,Nochpeem ), formerly New York[ 11] [ 17] Warranawankongs [ 16] Wiechquaeskeck , formerly New York[ 12] Wisquaskeck (Raritan), formerly Westchester County, New York[ 14] Unami -speaking subgroupsMahican (Stockbridge Mahican )[ 9] [ 7] [ 11] Manahoac , Virginia[ 18] Mascouten , formerly Michigan[ 7] Massachusett , formerly Massachusetts[ 9] [ 19] Meherrin , Virginia,[ 20] Menominee , Wisconsin[ 7] Meskwaki (Fox ), formerly Michigan,[ 7] Miami , formerly Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan,[ 7] Piankeshaw , formerly Indiana, currently OklahomaWea , formerly Indiana, currently OklahomaMohegan ,[ 9] Monacan , Virginia[ 21] Montaukett (Montauk ),[ 9] Monyton (Monetons , Monekot, Moheton) (Siouan ), West Virginia and VirginiaNansemond , VirginiaNanticoke , Delaware and Maryland[ 7] Narragansett , Rhode Island[ 9] Niantic , coastal Connecticut[ 9] [ 19] Nipmuc (Nipmuck ), Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island[ 19] Noquet , formerly MichiganNottaway , Virginia[ 20] Occaneechi (Occaneechee ), Virginia,[ 20] [ 22] [ 23] Patuxent , Maryland[ 10] Paugussett , Connecticut[ 9] Pennacook tribe , formerly Massachusetts, New Hampshire[ 24] Pequot , Connecticut[ 9] Petun (Tionontate ), Ontario[ 7] Piscataway , Maryland[ 10] Pocumtuc , western Massachusetts[ 19] Podunk , formerly New York,[ 19] Powhatan Confederacy , Virginia[ 10] Appomattoc , VirginiaArrohateck , VirginiaChesapeake , VirginiaChesepian , VirginiaChickahominy , Virginia[ 20] Kiskiack , VirginiaMattaponi , VirginiaNansemond , Virginia[ 20] Paspahegh , VirginiaPotomac (Patawomeck ), VirginiaPowhatan , VirginiaPamunkey , Virginia[ 20] Quinnipiac , Connecticut,[ 9] Rappahannock , VirginiaSaponi , North Carolina, Virginia,[ 20] [ 23] Sauk (Sac ), formerly Michigan,[ 7] Schaghticoke , western Connecticut[ 9] Shawnee , formerly Ohio,[ 7] Shinnecock ,[ 9] [ 19] Stegarake , formerly Virginia[ 18] Stuckanox (Stukanox ), Virginia[ 20] Conestoga (Susquehannock ), Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, West Virginia[ 7] Tauxenent (Doeg ), Virginia[ 25] Tunxis (Massaco ), Connecticut[ 9] Tuscarora , formerly North Carolina, Virginia, currently New YorkTutelo (Nahyssan ), Virginia,[ 20] [ 22] [ 23] Unquachog (Poospatuck ), Long Island, New York[ 19] Wabanaki Confederacy , Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec[ 9] Abenaki (Tarrantine ), Quebec, Maine, New Brunswick, New Hampshire, and VermontMi'kmaq (Micmac), New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec,[ 7] Passamaquoddy , New Brunswick, and Maine[ 7] Penobscot , MaineWolastoqiyik (Maliseet ), Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Quebec[ 7] Wampanoag , Massachusetts[ 9] Wangunk (Mattabeset), formerly Connecticut[ 9] Wawyachtonoc , formerly Connecticut, New York[ 11] Weapemeoc , formerly northern North CarolinaWenro , formerly New York[ 7] [ 9] Wicocomico , formerly Maryland, VirginiaWyandot (Huron ), Ontario south ofGeorgian Bay , later Kansas and Michigan, and currently Oklahoma andWendake , QuebecSoutheastern Woodlands [ edit ] Most of these no longer exist as tribes.
Acolapissa (Colapissa), Louisiana and Mississippi[ 26] Ais , eastern coastal Florida[ 27] Alafay (Alafia, Pojoy, Pohoy, Costas Alafeyes, Alafaya Costas), Florida[ 28] Amacano , Florida west coast[ 29] Apalachee , northwestern Florida[ 30] Atakapa (Attacapa), Louisiana west coast and Texas southwestern coast[ 30] Avoyel ("little Natchez"), Louisiana[ 21] [ 26] Bayogoula , southeastern Louisiana[ 21] [ 26] Biloxi , formerly Mississippi,[ 26] [ 30] Caddo Confederacy , formerly Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas,[ 30] [ 32] Adai (Adaizan, Adaizi, Adaise, Adahi, Adaes, Adees, Atayos), Louisiana and Texas[ 26] Cahinnio , southern Arkansas[ 32] Doustioni , north central Louisiana[ 32] Eyeish (Hais), eastern Texas[ 32] Hainai , eastern Texas[ 32] Hasinai , eastern Texas[ 32] Kadohadacho , northeastern Texas, southwestern Arkansas, northwestern Louisiana[ 32] Nabedache , eastern Texas[ 32] Nabiti , eastern Texas[ 32] Nacogdoche , eastern Texas[ 32] Nacono , eastern Texas[ 32] Nadaco , eastern Texas[ 32] Nanatsoho , northeastern Texas[ 32] Nasoni , eastern Texas[ 32] Natchitoches , Lower: central Louisiana, Upper: northeastern Texas[ 32] Neche , eastern Texas[ 32] Nechaui , eastern Texas[ 32] Ouachita , northern Louisiana[ 32] Tula , western Arkansas[ 32] Yatasi , northwestern Louisiana[ 32] Calusa , southwestern Florida[ 28] [ 30] Cape Fear Indians , North Carolina southern coast[ 26] Capinan (Capina ,Moctobi ), MississippiCatawba (Esaw, Usheree, Ushery, Yssa),[ 33] [ 30] Chacato (Chatot, Chactoo), Florida panhandle, later southern Alabama and Mississippi, then Louisiana[ 26] Chakchiuma , Alabama and Mississippi,[ 30] Chawasha (Washa), Louisiana[ 26] Cheraw (Chara, Charàh), North CarolinaCherokee , western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, later Georgia, northwestern South Carolina, northern Alabama, Arkansas, Texas, Mexico, and currently North Carolina and Oklahoma[ 34] Chickanee (Chiquini), North CarolinaChickasaw , Alabama and Mississippi,[ 30] [ 34] Chicora , coastal South Carolina[ 21] Chine , FloridaChisca (Cisca), southwestern Virginia[ 21] [ 35] Chitimacha , currently Louisiana[ 30] Choctaw , formerly Alabama; currently Mississippi,[ 30] [ 34] Chowanoc (Chowanoke ), North CarolinaCongaree (Canggaree), South Carolina[ 26] [ 36] Coree , North Carolina[ 21] Croatan , North CarolinaCusabo , coastal South Carolina[ 30] Eno , North Carolina[ 26] Grigra (Gris), Mississippi[ 37] Guacata (Santalûces), eastern coastal Florida[ 28] Guacozo , FloridaGuale (Cusabo, Iguaja, Ybaja), coastal Georgia[ 26] [ 30] Guazoco , southwestern Florida coast[ 28] Houma , Louisiana and Mississippi[ 30] Jaega (Jobe), eastern coastal Florida[ 27] Jaupin (Weapemoc), North CarolinaJororo , Florida interior[ 28] Keyauwee , North Carolina[ 26] Koasati (Coushatta ), formerly eastern Tennessee,[ 30] Koroa , Mississippi[ 26] Luca , southwestern Florida coast[ 28] Lumbee , currently North CarolinaMachapunga , North CarolinaMatecumbe (Matacumbêses, Matacumbe, Matacombe), Florida Keys[ 28] Mayaca , Florida[ 28] Mayaimi (Mayami), interior Florida[ 27] Mayajuaca , FloridaMikasuki (Miccosukee), currently FloridaMobila (Mobile, Movila), northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[ 30] Mocoso , western Florida[ 27] [ 28] Mougoulacha , Mississippi[ 21] Muscogee (Creek) , Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida; currently Oklahoma and AlabamaAbihka , Alabama,[ 31] Alabama , formerly Alabama,[ 31] [ 26] [ 30] Pakana (Pacâni, Pagna, Pasquenan, Pak-ká-na, Pacanas), central Alabama,[ 26] [ 21] Apalachicola Province , (Lower Towns of the Muscogee (Creek) Confederacy), Alabama and Georgia[ 38] Chiaha , Creek Confederacy, Alabama[ 31] Eufaula tribe , Georgia, currently OklahomaKialegee Tribal Town , Alabama, currently OklahomaOsochee (Osochi , Oswichee, Usachi, Oosécha), Creek Confederacy, Alabama[ 26] [ 31] Talapoosa , Creek Confederacy, Alabama[ 31] Thlopthlocco Tribal Town , Alabama, Georgia, currently OklahomaTukabatchee , Muscogee Creek Confederacy, Alabama[ 31] Naniaba , northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[ 30] Natchez , Louisiana and Mississippi[ 30] Neusiok (Newasiwac, Neuse River Indians), North Carolina[ 26] Norwood culture , Apalachee region, Florida, c. 12,000–4500 BCEMosopelea (Ofo ), Arkansas and Mississippi,[ 30] [ 26] Okchai (Ogchay), central Alabama[ 26] Okelousa , Louisiana[ 26] Opelousas , Louisiana[ 26] Pacara, Florida Pamlico , North CarolinaPascagoula , Mississippi coast[ 21] Pee Dee (Pedee ), South Carolina[ 26] [ 39] Pensacola , Florida panhandle and southern Alabama[ 30] Potoskeet , North CarolinaQuinipissa , southeastern Louisiana and Mississippi[ 31] Roanoke , North CarolinaSaluda (Saludee, Saruti), South Carolina[ 26] Santee (Seretee, Sarati, Sati, Sattees), South Carolina (no relation toSantee Sioux ), South Carolina[ 26] Santa Luces , FloridaSaponi , North Carolina, Virginia,[ 20] [ 23] Saura , North CarolinaSaxapahaw (Sissipahaw , Sissipahua, Shacioes), North Carolina[ 26] Secotan , North CarolinaSeminole , currently Florida and Oklahoma[ 34] Sewee (Suye, Joye, Xoye, Soya), South Carolina coast[ 26] Shakori , North CarolinaShoccoree (Haw), North Carolina,[ 26] Sissipahaw , North CarolinaSugeree (Sagarees, Sugaws, Sugar, Succa), North Carolina and South Carolina[ 26] Surruque , east-central Florida[ 40] Suteree (Sitteree, Sutarees, Sataree), North CarolinaTaensa , Mississippi[ 37] Taposa , MississippiTawasa , Alabama[ 41] Tequesta , southeastern coastal Florida[ 26] [ 28] Timucua , Florida and Georgia[ 26] [ 28] [ 30] Acuera , central Florida[ 42] Agua Fresca (or Agua Dulce or Freshwater), interior northeast Florida[ 42] Arapaha , north-central Florida and south-central Georgia?[ 42] Cascangue , coastal southeast Georgia[ 42] Icafui (Icafi), coastal southeast Georgia[ 42] Mocama (Tacatacuru), coastal northeast Florida and coastal southeast Georgia[ 42] Northern Utina north-central Florida[ 42] Ocale , central Florida[ 42] Oconi , interior southeast Georgia[ 42] Potano , north-central Florida[ 42] Saturiwa , northeast Florida[ 42] Tacatacuru , coastal southeast Georgia[ 43] Tucururu (or Tucuru), Florida[ 42] Utina (or Eastern Utina), northeast-central Florida[ 44] Yufera , coastal southeast Georgia[ 42] Yui (Ibi), coastal southeast Georgia[ 42] Yustaga , north-central Florida[ 42] Taposa , MississippiTiou (Tioux ), Mississippi[ 36] Tocaste , Florida[ 28] Tocobaga , Florida[ 26] [ 28] Tohomé , northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[ 30] Tomahitan , eastern TennesseeTopachula , FloridaTunica , Arkansas and Mississippi,[ 30] Utiza , Florida[ 27] Uzita , Tampa Bay, Florida[ 45] Vicela , Florida[ 27] Viscaynos , FloridaWaccamaw , North Carolina, South CarolinaWateree (Guatari, Watterees), North Carolina[ 26] Waxhaw (Waxsaws, Wisack, Wisacky, Weesock, Flathead), North Carolina and South Carolina[ 26] [ 39] Westo , Virginia and South Carolina,[ 21] Winyah , South Carolina coast[ 26] Woccon , North Carolina[ 26] [ 39] Yamasee , Florida, Georgia[ 21] Yazoo , southeastern tip of Arkansas, eastern Louisiana, Mississippi[ 26] [ 46] Yuchi (Euchee ), central Tennessee,[ 26] [ 30] Ahwahnechee , Yosemite Valley, CaliforniaBannock , Idaho[ 47] Coso People , ofCoso Rock Art District in theCoso Range ,Mojave Desert CaliforniaFremont culture (400 CE–1300 CE), formerly Utah[ 48] Kawaiisu , southern inland California[ 47] Mono , southeastern CaliforniaNorthern Paiute , eastern California, Nevada, Oregon, southwestern Idaho[ 47] Agaideka ,Salmon Eaters ,Lemhi , Snake River and Lemhi River Valley[ 51] [ 52] Doyahinee' , Mountain people[ 49] Kammedeka ,Kammitikka ,Jack Rabbit Eaters , Snake River, Great Salt Lake[ 51] Hukundüka ,Porcupine Grass Seed Eaters ,Wild Wheat Eaters , possibly synonymous withKammitikka [ 51] [ 53] Tukudeka ,Dukundeka' ,Sheep Eaters (Mountain Sheep Eaters ), Sawtooth Range, Idaho[ 51] [ 52] Yahandeka ,Yakandika ,Groundhog Eaters , lower Boise, Payette, and Wiser Rivers[ 51] [ 52] Kuyatikka ,Kuyudikka ,Bitterroot Eaters , Halleck, Mary's River, Clover Valley, Smith Creek Valley, Nevada[ 53] Mahaguadüka ,Mentzelia Seed Eaters ,Ruby Valley , Nevada[ 53] Painkwitikka ,Penkwitikka ,Fish Eaters , Cache Valley, Idaho and Utah[ 53] Pasiatikka ,Redtop Grass Eaters ,Deep Creek Gosiute , Deep Creek Valley, Antelope Valley[ 53] Tipatikka ,Pinenut Eaters , northernmost band[ 53] Tsaiduka ,Tule Eaters ,Railroad Valley , Nevada[ 53] Tsogwiyuyugi , Elko, Nevada[ 53] Waitikka ,Ricegrass Eaters , Ione Valley, Nevada[ 53] Watatikka ,Ryegrass Seed Eaters ,Ruby Valley , Nevada[ 53] Wiyimpihtikka ,Buffalo Berry Eaters [ 53] Southern Paiute , Arizona, Nevada, UtahTimbisha , aka Panamint or Koso, southeastern CaliforniaUte , Colorado, Utah, northern New Mexico[ 47] Capote , southeastern Colorado and New Mexico[ 55] Moanunts , Salina, Utah[ 56] Muache , south and central Colorado[ 55] Pahvant , western Utah[ 56] Sanpits , central Utah[ 56] Timpanogots , north central Utah[ 56] Uintah , Utah[ 55] Uncompahgre orTaviwach , central and northern Colorado[ 55] Weeminuche , western Colorado, eastern Utah, northwestern New Mexico[ 55] White River Utes (Parusanuch andYampa ), Colorado and eastern Utah[ 55] Washo , Nevada and California[ 57] Nota bene: The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of California's boundaries, and many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified asGreat Basin tribes and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified asPlateau tribes . [ 58]
Achomawi ,Achumawi ,Pit River tribe , northeastern California[ 59] Atsugewi , northeastern California[ 59] Cahuilla , southern California[ 59] Chumash , coastal southern California[ 59] Chilula , northwestern California[ 59] Chimariko , extinct, northwestern California[ 60] Cupeño , southern California[ 59] Eel River Athapaskan peoples Esselen , west-central California[ 59] Hupa , northwestern California[ 59] Juaneño ,Acjachemem , southwestern CaliforniaKarok , northwestern California[ 59] Kato ,Cahto , northwestern California[ 59] Kitanemuk , south-central California[ 59] Konkow , northern-central California[ 59] Kumeyaay ,Diegueño ,Kumiai Ipai , southwestern California[ 59] Tipai , southwestern California and northwestern Mexico[ 59] La Jolla complex , southern California, c. 6050–1000 BCELuiseño , southwestern California[ 59] Maidu , northeastern California[ 59] Miwok ,Me-wuk , central California[ 59] Monache ,Western Mono , central California[ 59] Nisenan , eastern-central California[ 59] Nomlaki , northwestern California[ 59] Ohlone ,Costanoan , west-central California[ 59] Patwin , central California[ 59] Pauma Complex , southern California, c. 6050–1000 BCEPomo , northwestern and central-western California[ 59] Salinan , coastal central California[ 59] Serrano , southern California[ 59] Shasta northwestern California[ 59] Tataviam ,Allilik (Fernandeño), southern California[ 59] Tolowa , northwestern California[ 59] Tongva ,Gabrieleño ,Fernandeño ,San Clemente tribe , coastal southern California[ 59] Tubatulabal , south-central California[ 59] Wappo , north-central California[ 59] Whilkut , northwestern California[ 59] Wintu , northwestern California[ 59] Wiyot , northwestern California[ 59] Yana , northern-central California[ 59] Yokuts , central and southern California[ 59] Yuki ,Ukomno'm , northwestern California[ 59] Yurok , northwestern California[ 59] This region is also called "Oasisamerica" and includes parts of what is nowArizona , SouthernColorado ,New Mexico , WesternTexas , SouthernUtah ,Chihuahua , andSonora
Southern Athabaskan Chiricahua Apache , New Mexico and OklahomaJicarilla Apache , New MexicoLipan Apache , New Mexico, formerly TexasMescalero Apache , New MexicoNavajo (Diné ), Arizona and New MexicoSan Carlos Apache , ArizonaTonto Apache , ArizonaWestern Apache (Coyotero Apache), ArizonaWhite Mountain Apache , ArizonaComecrudo , TamaulipasCotoname (Carrizo de Camargo )Genízaro (detribalized Apache, Navajo, and Ute descendants), Arizona, New MexicoHalchidhoma , Arizona and CaliforniaHualapai , ArizonaHavasupai , ArizonaHohokam , formerly ArizonaKarankawa , formerly TexasLa Junta , Texas, ChihuahuaMamulique , Texas, Nuevo LeónManso , Texas, ChihuahuaMojave , Arizona, California, and NevadaO'odham , Arizona, SonoraPiipaash (Maricopa ), ArizonaPima Bajo Pueblo peoples , Arizona, New Mexico, Western TexasAncestral Pueblo , formerly Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, UtahHopi-Tewa (Arizona Tewa ,Hano ), Arizona, joined the Hopi during the Pueblo RevoltHopi , ArizonaKeres people , New MexicoTewa people , New MexicoTiwa people , New MexicoTowa people Zuni people (Ashiwi ), New MexicoQuechan (Yuma ), Arizona and CaliforniaQuems , formerly Coahuila and TexasSolano , Coahuila, TexasTamique (Aranama ), formerly TexasToboso , Chihuahua and CoahuilaWalapai , ArizonaYaqui (Yoreme ), Arizona, SonoraYavapai , ArizonaMexico and Mesoamerica [ edit ] The regions ofOasisamerica ,Aridoamerica , andMesoamerica span multiple countries and overlap.
Aridoamerica region of North America Acaxee Aranama (Hanáma ,Hanáme ,Chaimamé ,Chariname ,Xaraname ,Taraname ), southeast TexasCoahuiltecan , Texas, northern MexicoChichimeca Cochimí , Baja California[ 65] Cocopa , Arizona, northern MexicoGarza , Texas, northern MexicoGuachimontone Guamare Guaycura , Baja CaliforniaGuarijío ,Huarijío , Chihuahua, Sonora[ 65] Huichol [ 65] Wixáritari ), Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and DurangoKiliwa , Baja CaliforniaMayo ,[ 65] Monqui , Baja CaliforniaPaipai ,Akwa'ala ,Kw'al , Baja California[ 66] Opata Otomi , central MexicoPatiri , southeastern TexasPericúe , Baja CaliforniaPima Bajo [ 65] Seri [ 65] Tarahumara [ 65] Tepecano Tepehuán [ 65] Terocodame , Texas and MexicoTeuchitlan tradition Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition Yaqui ,[ 65] Zacateco Map of Mesoamerica Amuzgos Nahua ,Guatemala and MexicoChatinos Cora people Cuicatecs Huastec Huave (Wabi ),Juchitán District, Oaxaca Ixcatecos Lenca Maya ,Belize ,El Salvador ,Guatemala ,Honduras , and MexicoMazatec Mixe Mixtec Olmec Otomi Pipil Purépecha , also known as TarascanTacuate Tlapanec Trique Xinca Zapotec Zoque Toltec (900–1168 CE),Tula, Hildago Cultural regions of South and Central America at the time of contact (in Spanish) Partially organized perHandbook of South American Indians [ 67]
AnthropologistJulian Steward defined the Antilles cultural area, which includes all of theAntilles andBahamas , except forTrinidad and Tobago .[ 67]
Arawak Caquetio , Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and VenezuelaCarib , Lesser AntillesCiboney , Greater Antilles, c. 1000–300 BCE[ 68] Ciguayo ,Hispaniola Ortoiroid , c. 5500–200 BCE[ 69] Saladoid culture , 500 BCE–545 CE[ 69] The Central American culture area includes part ofEl Salvador , most ofHonduras , all ofNicaragua ,Costa Rica , andPanama , and some peoples on or near the Pacific coasts ofColombia andEcuador .[ 67]
Bagaces , Costa RicaBokota , PanamaBoruca , Costa RicaBribri , Costa RicaCabécar , Costa RicaCacaopera (Matagalpa ,Ulua ), formerly El Salvador[ 70] Cayada , EcuadorChanguena , PanamaEmbera-Wounaan (Chocó ,Wounaan ), Colombia, PanamaCholuteca , HondurasCoiba , Costa RicaCoito , Costa RicaCorobici , Costa RicaDesaguadero , Costa RicaDorasque , PanamaGuatuso , Costa RicaGuaymí , PanamaGuetar , Costa RicaGuna , Panama and ColombiaLenca , Honduras and El SalvadorMangue , NicaraguaMaribichocoa , Honduras and NicaraguaMiskito , Hondrus, NicaraguaNagrandah , NicaraguaNgöbe Buglé , Bocas del Toro, PanamaNicarao , NicaraguaNicoya , Costa RicaOrotiña , Costa RicaPaparo , PanamaPech , northeastern HondurasPiria, Nicaragua Poton , Honduras and El SalvadorQuepo , Costa RicaRama , NicaraguaSigua , PanamaSubtiaba , NicaraguaSuerre , Costa RicaSumo (Mayagna ), Honduras and NicaraguaTerraba (Naso ,Teribe ,Tjër Di ), PanamaTojar , PanamaTolupan (Jicaque), HondurasUlva , El Salvador, Honduras and NicaraguaVoto , Costa RicaYasika , NicaraguaColombia and Venezuela [ edit ] The Colombia and Venezuela culture area includes most ofColombia andVenezuela . Southern Colombia is in the Andean culture area, as are some peoples of central and northeastern Colombia, who are surrounded by peoples of the Colombia and Venezuela culture. Eastern Venezuela is in theGuianas culture area, and southeastern Colombia and southwestern Venezuela are in the Amazonia culture area.[ 67]
Abibe , northwestern ColombiaAburrá , central ColombiaAchagua (Axagua ), eastern Colombia, western VenezuelaAgual , western ColombiaAmaní , central ColombiaAncerma , western ColombiaAndaqui (Andaki ), Huila Department, ColombiaAndoque ,Andoke , southeastern ColombiaAntiochia , ColombiaArbi , western ColombiaArma , western ColombiaAtunceta , western ColombiaAuracana , northeastern ColombiaBuriticá , western ColombiaCaquetio , western VenezuelaCalamari , northwestern ColombiaCalima culture , western Colombia, 200 BCE–400 CECaramanta , western ColumbiaCarate , northeastern ColombiaCarare , northeastern ColombiaCarex , northwestern ColombiaCari , western ColombiaCarrapa , western ColombiaCartama , western ColombiaCauca , western ColombiaCorbago , northeastern ColombiaCosina , northeastern ColombiaCatio , northwestern ColombiaCenú , northwestern ColombiaCenufaná , northwestern ColombiaChanco , western ColombiaCoanoa , northeastern ColombiaCuiba , east Colombia west VenezuelaCuica , western VenezuelaCumanagoto , eastern VenezuelaEvéjito , western ColombiaFincenú , northwestern ColombiaGorrón , western ColombiaGuahibo (Guajibo ), eastern Colombia, southern VenezuelaGuambía , western ColombiaGuanes , Colombia, pre-Columbian cultureGuanebucan , northeastern ColombiaGuazuzú , northwestern ColombiaHiwi , western Colombia, eastern VenezuelaJamundí , western ColombiaKari'ña , eastern VenezuelaKogi , northern ColombiaLile , western ColombiaLache , central ColombiaMariche , central VenezuelaMaco (Mako, Itoto, Wotuja, or Jojod), northeastern Colombia and western VenezuelaMompox , northwestern ColombiaMotilone , northeastern Colombia and western VenezuelaNaura , central ColombiaNauracota , central ColombiaNoanamá (Waunana, Huaunana, Woun Meu), northwestern Colombia and PanamaNutabé , northwestern ColombiaOpón , northeastern ColombiaPacabueye , northwestern ColombiaPancenú , northwestern ColombiaPatángoro , central ColombiaPaucura , western ColombiaPemed , northwestern ColombiaPequi people , western ColombiaPicara people , western ColombiaPozo , western ColombiaPumé (Yaruro ), VenezuelaQuimbaya , central Colombia, 4th–7th centuries CEQuinchia , western ColombiaSutagao , central ColombianTahamí , northwestern ColombiaTairona , northern Colombia, pre-Columbian culture, 1st–11th centuries CETamalameque , northwestern ColombiaMariche , central VenezuelaTimba , western ColombiaTimote , western VenezuelaTinigua , Caquetá Department, ColombiaTolú , northwestern ColombiaToro , western ColombiaTupe , northeastern ColombiaTurbaco people , northwestern ColombiaUrabá , northwestern ColombiaUrezo , northwestern ColombiaU'wa , eastern Colombia, western VenezuelaWaikerí , eastern VenezuelaWayuu (Wayu, Wayúu, Guajiro, Wahiro), northeastern Colombia and northwestern VenezuelaXiriguana , northeastern ColombiaYamicí , northwestern ColombiaYapel , northwestern ColombiaYarigui , northeastern ColombiaYukpa ,Yuko , northeastern ColombiaZamyrua , northeastern ColombiaZendagua , northwestern ColombiaZenú , northwestern Colombia, pre-Columbian culture, 200 BCE–1600 CEZopia , western ColombiaThe Guianas in northern South AmericaThe position of the Guianas in theNeotropical realm in northern South America This region includes northern partsColombia ,French Guiana ,Guyana ,Suriname ,Venezuela , and parts of theAmazonas ,Amapá ,Pará , andRoraima States in Brazil.
Acawai (6N 60W)Acokwa (3N 53W)Acuria (Akurio ,Akuriyo ), 5N 55W, SurinameAkawaio , Roraima, Brazil, Guyana, and VenezuelaAmariba (2N 60W)Amicuana (2N 53W)Apalaí (Apalai ), Amapá, BrazilApirua (3N 53W)Apurui (3N 53W)Aracaret (4N 53W)Aramagoto (2N 54W)Aramisho (2N 54W)Arebato (7N 65W)Arekena (2N 67W)Arhuaco , northeastern ColombiaArigua Arinagoto (4N 63W)Aruã (1N 50W)Aruacay , VenezuelaAtorai (2N 59W)Atroahy (1S 62W)Auaké , Brazil and GuyanaBaniwa (Baniva) (3N 68W), Brazil, Colombia and VenezuelaBaraüana (1N 65W)Bonari (3S 58W)Baré (3N 67W)Caberre (4N 71 W)Cadupinago Cariaya (1S 63 W)Carib (Kalinago), VenezuelaCarinepagoto , TrinidadChaguan , VenezuelaChaima , VenezuelaCuaga , VenezuelaCuacua , VenezuelaCumanagoto , VenezuelaGuayano , VenezuelaGuinau (4N 65W)Hixkaryána , Amazonas, BrazilHodï , VenezuelaInao (4N 65W)Ingarikó , Brazil, Guyana and VenezuelaJaoi (Yao), Guyana, Trinidad and VenezuelaKali'na , Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, VenezuelaLokono (Arawak, Locono), Guyana, Trinidad, VenezuelaMacapa (2N 59W)Macushi , Brazil and GuyanaMaipure (4N 67W)Maopityan (2N 59W)Mapoyo (Mapoye), VenezuelaMarawan (3N 52W)Mariusa , VenezuelaMarourioux (3N 53W)Nepuyo (Nepoye), Guyana, Trinidad and VenezuelaOrealla , GuyanaPalengue , VenezuelaPalikur , Brazil, French GuianaParauana (2N 63W)Parauien (3S 60W)Pareco , VenezuelaParia , VenezuelaPatamona , Roraima, BrazilPauishana (2N 62W)Pemon (Arecuna), Brazil, Guyana, and VenezuelaPiapoco (3N 70W)Piaroa , VenezuelaPino (3N 54W)Piritú , VenezuelaPurui (2N 52W)Saliba (Sáliva ), VenezuelaSanumá , Venezuela, BrazilShebayo , TrinidadSikiana (Chikena ,Xikiyana ), Brazil, SurinameTagare , VenezuelaTamanaco , VenezuelaTarumá (3S 60W)Tibitibi , VenezuelaTiriyó (Tarëno ), Brazil, SurinameTocoyen (3N 53W)Tumuza , VenezuelaWai-Wai , Amazonas, Brazil and GuyanaWapishana , Brazil and GuyanaWarao (Warrau), Guyana and VenezuelaWayana (Oyana ), Pará, BrazilYa̧nomamö (Yanomami ), Venezuela and Amazonas, BrazilYe'kuana , Venezuela, BrazilThis region includes parts of theCeará ,Goiás ,Espírito Santo ,Mato Grosso ,Mato Grosso do Sul ,Pará , andSanta Catarina states of Brazil
Apinajé (Apinaye Caroyo ),[ 9] Arara , ParáAtikum , Bahia and PernambucoBororo ,[ 9] Botocudo (Lakiãnõ )Carijo Guaraní [ 9] East Brazilian tradition , Precolumbian culture[ 9] Guató (Guato ), Mato GrossoKadiwéu (Guaicuru ),[ 9] Kaingang Karajá (Iny ,Javaé ),[ 9] Kaxixó , Minas GeraisKayapo (Cayapo ,Mebêngôkre ),[ 9] Laklãnõ ,[ 9] Mehim (Krahô ,Crahao ),[ 9] Ofayé , Mato Grosso do SulParakatêjê (Gavião ),[ 9] Pataxó , BahiaPotiguara (Pitigoares ),[ 9] Tabajara , CearáTapirapé (Tapirape)Terena , Mato Gross and Mato Grosso do Sul, BrazilTupiniquim , Espírito SantoUmutina (Barbados )[ 9] Xakriabá (Chakriaba ,Chikriaba , orShacriaba ), Minas GeraisXavánte (Shavante ),[ 9] Xerénte (Sherente ),[ 9] Xucuru , PernambucoTheTawantinsuyu , or fullest extent of theInca Empire , which includes much of the Andean cultural region Andean Hunting-Collecting tradition , Argentina, 11,000–4,000 CEAwa-Kwaiker , northern Ecuador, southern ColombiaAymara , Bolivia,[ 71] Callawalla (Callahuaya ), Bolivia[ 71] Cañari , EcuadorCapulí culture , Ecuador, 800–1500 CECerro Narrio (Chaullabamba ) (Precolumbian culture)Chachapoyas , Amazonas, PeruChachilla (Cayapas )Chanka (Chanca ), PeruChavín , northern Peru, 900–200 BCEChincha people , Peru (Precolumbian culture)Chipaya , Oruro Department, Bolivia[ 71] Chuquibamba culture (Precolumbian culture)Conchucos Diaguita Guangaia (Precolumbian culture)Ichuña microlithic tradition (Precolumbian culture)Inca Empire (Inka), based in PeruJama-Coaque (Precolumbian culture)Killke culture , Peru, 900–1200 CEKogi Kolla (Colla ), Argentina, Bolivia, ChileLa Tolita (Precolumbian culture)Las Vegas culture , coastal Ecuador, 8000 BCE–4600 BCELauricocha culture , Peru, 8000–2500 BCELima culture , Peru, 100–650 CEMaina , Ecuador, PeruManteño-Huancavilca (Precolumbian culture)Milagro (Precolumbian culture)Mollo culture , Bolivia, 1000–1500 CEMuisca , Colombian highlands (Precolumbian culture)Pachacama (Precolumbian culture)Paez (Nasa culture ), Colombian highlands (Precolumbian culture)Panzaleo (Precolumbian culture)Pasto Pijao , ColombiaQuechua (Kichua ,Kichwa ), Bolivia[ 71] Quitu culture , 2000 BCE–1550 CESalinar (Precolumbian culture)Saraguro Tiwanaku culture (Tiahuanaco ), 400–1000 CE, BoliviaTsáchila (Colorado ), EcuadorTuza-Piartal (Precolumbian culture)Uru , Bolivia,[ 71] Wari culture , central coast and highlands of Peru, 500–1000 CEAmotape complex , northern coastal Peru, 9,000–7,100 BCEAtacameño (Atacama ,Likan Antaí ), ChileAwá , Colombia and EcuadorBara , ColombiaCara culture , coastal Ecuador, 500 BCE–1550 CEBahía , Ecuador, 500 BCE–500 CECasma culture , coastal Peru, 1000–1400 CEChancay , central coastal Peru, 1000–1450 CEChango , coastal Peru, northern ChileChimú , north coastal Peru, 1000–1450 CECupisnique (Precolumbian culture), 1000–200 BCE, coastal PeruLambayeque (Sican culture ), north coastal Peru, 750–1375 CEMachalilla culture , coastal Ecuador, 1500–1100 BCEManteño civilization , western Ecuador, 850–1600 CEMoche (Mochica), north coastal Peru, 1–750 CENazca culture (Nasca ), south coastal Peru, 1–700 CENorte Chico civilization (Precolumbian culture), coastal PeruPaiján culture , northern coastal Peru, 8,700–5,900 BCEParacas , south coastal Peru, 600–175 BCERecuay culture , Peru (Precolumbian culture)Tallán (Precolumbian culture), north coastal PeruValdivia culture , Ecuador, 3500–1800 BCEVirú culture , Piura Region, Peru, 200 BCE–300 CEWari culture (Huari culture ), Peru, 500–1000 CEYukpa (Yuko ), ColombiaYurutí , ColombiaNorthwestern Amazon [ edit ] This region includesAmazonas inBrazil ; theAmazonas andPutumayo Departments inColombia ;Cotopaxi ,Los Rios ,Morona-Santiago ,Napo , andPastaza Provinces and theOriente Region inEcuador ; and theLoreto Region inPeru .
Arabela , Loreto Region, PeruArapaso (Arapaco ), Amazonas, BrazilBaniwa Barbudo , Loreto Region, PeruBora , Loreto Region, PeruCandoshi-Shapra (Chapras ), Loreto Region, PeruCarútana (Arara ), Amazonas, BrazilChayahuita (Chaywita ) Loreto Region, PeruCocama , Loreto Region, PeruCofán (Cofan ), Putumayo Department, Colombia and EcuadorCubeo (Kobeua ), Amazonas, Brazil and ColombiaDâw , Rio Negro, BrazilFlecheiro Huaorani (Waorani ,Waodani ,Waos ), EcuadorHupda (Hup ), Brazil, ColombiaJibito , Loreto Region, PeruJivaroan peoples , Ecuador and PeruAchuar , Morona-Santiago Province and Oriente Region, Ecuador and Loreto Region, PeruAguaruna (Aguarana ), Ecuador, PeruHuambisa , PeruShuar , Morona-Santiago Province and Oriente Region, Ecuador and Loreto Region, PeruKachá (Shimaco ,Urarina ), Loreto Region, PeruKamsá (Sebondoy ), Putumayo Department, ColombiaKanamarí , Amazonas, BrazilKichua (Quichua )Korubu , Amazonas, BrazilKugapakori-Nahua Macaguaje (Majaguaje ), Río Caquetá, ColombiaMachiguenga , PeruMarubo Matsés (Mayoruna ,Maxuruna ), Brazil and PeruMayoruna (Maxuruna )Miriti , Amazonas Department, ColombiaMurato , Loreto Region, PeruMura , Amazonas, BrazilPirahã (Mura-pirarrã), Amazonas, BrazilNukak (Nukak-Makú ), eastern ColombiaOcaina , Loreto Region, PeruOmagua (Cambeba ,Kambeba ,Umana ), Amazonas, BrazilOrejón (Orejon ), Napo Province, EcuadorPanoan , western Brazil, Bolivia, PeruSharpas Siona (Sioni ), Amazonas Department, ColombiaSiriano , Brazil, ColombiaSiusi , Amazonas, BrazilTariano (Tariana ), Amazonas, BrazilTsohom Djapá Tukano (Tucano ), Brazil, ColombiaWaikino (Vaikino ), Amazonas, BrazilWaimiri-Atroari (Kinja ,Uaimiri-Atroari ), Amazonas and Roraima, BrazilWanano (Unana ,Vanana ), Amazonas, BrazilWitoto Yagua (Yahua ), Loreta Region, PeruYaminahua (Jaminawa ,Yamanawa ,Yaminawá ), Pando Department, Bolivia[ 71] Yora Záparo (Zaparo ), Pastaza Province, EcuadorZuruahã (Suruahá ,Suruwaha ), Amazonas, BrazilThis region includesAmazonas ,Maranhão , and parts ofPará States in Brazil.
Amanayé (Ararandeura ), BrazilAraweté (Araueté ,Bïde ), Pará, BrazilAwá (Guajá) , BrazilCh'unchu , PeruGe Guajajára (Guajajara ), Maranhão, BrazilGuaraní , ParaguayKa'apor , Maranhão, BrazilKuruaya , Pará, BrazilMarajoara , Precolumbian culture, Pará, BrazilPanará , Mato Grosso and Pará, BrazilParakanã (Paracana )Suruí do Pará , Pará, BrazilTembé Turiwára Wayampi Zo'é people , Pará, BrazilThis region includes southern Brazil (Mato Grosso ,Mato Grosso do Sul , parts ofPará , andRondônia ) and Eastern Bolivia (Beni Department ).
Aikanã , Rondônia, BrazilAkuntsu , Rondônia, BrazilApiacá (Apiaká ), Mato Grosso and Pará, Brazil[ 72] Assuriní do Toncantins (Tocantins )Aweti (Aueto ), Mato Grosso, BrazilBakairí (Bakairi )Chácobo (Chacobo ), northwest Beni Department, Bolivia[ 71] Chiquitano (Chiquito ,Tarapecosi ), Brazil and Santa Cruz, Bolivia[ 71] Cinta Larga , Mato Grosso, BrazilEnawene Nawe , Mato Grosso, BrazilGavião of Rondônia Guarayu (Guarayo ), Bolivia[ 71] Ikpeng (Xicao ), Mato Grosso, BrazilItene , Beni Department, Bolivia[ 71] Irántxe (Iranche )Juma (Kagwahiva ), Rondônia, BrazilJurúna (Yaruna ,Juruna ,Yudjá ), Mato Grosso, BrazilKaiabi (Caiabi ,Cajabi , Kajabi,Kayabi ), Mato Grosso, BrazilKalapálo (Kalapalo ), Mato Grosso, BrazilKamayurá (Camayura ), Mato Grosso, BrazilKanoê (Kapixaná ), Rondônia, BrazilKaripuná (Caripuna )Karitiâna (Caritiana ), BrazilKayapo , Mato Grosso, BrazilKuikuro , Mato Grosso, BrazilMatipu , Mato Grosso, BrazilMehináku (Mehinacu ,Mehinako ), Mato Grosso, BrazilMoxo (Mojo ), BoliviaNahukuá (Nahuqua ), Mato Grosso, BrazilNambikuára (Nambicuara ,Nambikwara ), Mato Grosso, BrazilPacahuara (Pacaguara ,Pacawara ), northwest Beni Department, Bolivia[ 71] Pacajá (Pacaja )Panará , Mato Grosso and Pará, BrazilParecís (Paressi )Rikbaktsa (Erikbaksa ), Mato Grosso, BrazilRio Pardo people , Mato Grosso, BrazilSateré-Mawé (Maue ), BrazilSuyá (Kisedje ), Mato Grosso, BrazilTacana (Takana ), Beni and Madre de Dios Rivers, Bolivia[ 71] Tapajó (Tapajo )Tenharim Trumai , Mato Grosso, BrazilTsimané (Chimané ,Mosetén ,Pano ), Beni Department, Bolivia[ 71] Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau , Rondônia, BrazilWari' (Pacanawa ,Waricaca' ), Rondônia, BrazilWauja (Waurá ,Waura ), Mato Grosso, BrazilWuy jugu (Mundurucu ,Munduruku )Yawalapiti (Iaualapiti ), Mato Grosso, BrazilSouthwestern Amazon [ edit ] This region includes theCuzco ,Huánuco Junín ,Loreto ,Madre de Dios , andUcayali Regions of easternPeru , parts ofAcre ,Amazonas , andRondônia ,Brazil , and parts of theLa Paz andBeni Departments ofBolivia .
Aguano (Santacrucino, Uguano), PeruAmahuaca , Brazil, PeruApurinã (Popũkare ), Amazonas and AcreAsháninka (Campa ,Chuncha ), Acre, Brazil and Junín, Pasco, Huánuco, and Ucayali, PeruBanawá (Jafí ,Kitiya ), Amazonas, BrazilCashibo (Carapache ), Huánuco Region, PeruConibo (Shipibo-Conibo ), Peru and Amazonas, BrazilEse Ejja (Chama ), Beni Department, Bolivia[ 71] Harakmbut , Madre de Dios, PeruAmarakaeri , Madre de Dios Region, PeruHuachipaeri , Madre de Dios Region, PeruArasairi , Madre de Dios Region, PeruManuquiari , Madre de Dios Region, PeruPuikiri (Puncuri ), Madre de Dios Region, PeruSapiteri , Madre de Dios Region, PeruToyeri , Madre de Dios Region, Peru[ 73] Hi-Merimã ,Himarimã , Amazonas, BrazilJamamadi , Acre and Amazonas, BrazilKaxinawá (Cashinahua ,Huni Kuin ), Peru and Acre, BrazilKulina (Culina ), PeruKwaza (Coaiá ,Koaiá ), Rondônia, BrazilLatundê , Rondônia, BrazilMachinere , Bolivia[ 71] Mashco-Piro , PeruMatís (Matis ), BrazilMatsés (Mayoruna ,Maxuruna ), Brazil, PeruParintintin (Kagwahiva’nga ), BrazilShipibo , Loreto Region, PeruSirionó (Chori ,Miá ), Beni and Santa Cruz Departments, BoliviaTicuna (Tucuna ), Brazil, Colombia, PeruToromono (Toromona ), La Paz Department, Bolivia[ 71] Yanesha' (Amuesha ), Cusco Region, PeruYawanawa (Jaminawá ,Marinawá ,Xixinawá ), Acre, Brazil; Madre de Dios, Peru; and BoliviaYine (Contaquiro ,Simiranch ,Simirinche ), Cuzco Region, PeruYuqui (Bia ,Yuki ), Cochabamba Department, Bolivia[ 71] Yuracaré (Yura), Beni and Cochabamba Departments, Bolivia[ 71] Approximate region of theGran Chaco Abipón , Argentina, historic groupAngaite (Angate), northwestern ParaguayAyoreo [ 74] Ayoré ,Moro ,Morotoco ,Pyeta ,Yovia ,[ 71] Zamuco ), Bolivia and ParaguayChamacoco (Zamuko ),[ 74] Chané , Argentina and BoliviaChiquitano (Chiquito, Tarapecosi), eastern BoliviaChorote (Choroti ,[ 74] Iyo'wujwa ,[ 71] Iyojwa'ja Chorote ,Manjuy ), Argentina, Bolivia, and ParaguayGuana [ 74] Guaraní ,[ 74] Guaycuru peoples , Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and ParaguayKaiwá ,[ 74] Lengua people (Enxet ),[ 74] Lulé (Pelé, Tonocoté), ArgentinaMaká [ 74] Nivaclé (Ashlushlay ,[ 74] Chulupí , Chulupe, Guentusé), Argentina and ParaguaySanapaná [ 74] Vilela , ArgentinaWichí (Mataco ),[ 74] [ 71] Patagonian languages at the time of European/African contact Aché , southeastern ParaguayChaná (extinct ), formerly UruguayChandule (Chandri )Charrúa , southern Brazil and UruguayComechingon (Henia-Camiare ), ArgentinaHaush (Manekʼenk ,Mánekenk ,Aush ), Tierra del FuegoHet (Querandí ) (extinct ), formerly Argentinian PampasHuarpe (Warpes ), Argentina, ChileMapuche (Araucanian ), southwestern Argentina and ChileMbeguá (extinct ), formerly Paraná River, ArgentinaMinuane (extinct ), formerly UruguayPuelche (Guennaken, Pamba) (laterAraucanized ) (extinct), Argentinian and Chilean Andes[ 75] Tehuelche (laterAraucanized ),Patagonia Teushen (Tehues ),extinct , formerly Tierra del FuegoSelkʼnam (Ona), Tierra del FuegoYaro (Jaro )Fjords and channels of Patagonia [ edit ] Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian languages) are spoken byIndigenous peoples from the southern tip ofSouth America toAlaska andGreenland , encompassing the land masses which constitute theAmericas . These Indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinctlanguage families as well as manylanguage isolates andunclassified languages . Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. According toUNESCO , most of the Indigenous American languages inNorth America are critically endangered and many of them are already extinct.[ 76]
Before European contact:
After European contact, some distinct writing systems have been used for Indigenous languages:
Genetic classification [ edit ] Thehaplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Americans isHaplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA) .[ 77] chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine duringmeiosis . This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can more easily be studied.[ 78] Indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial peopling of theAmericas , and secondly withEuropean colonization of the Americas .[ 79] [ 80] gene lineages and foundinghaplotypes present in today's Indigenous Americanpopulations .[ 79]
Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from theBering sea coast line , with an initial 20,000-year layover onBeringia for thefounding population .[ 81] [ 82] micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific toSouth America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[ 83] Na-Dené ,Inuit andAlaska Native populations exhibithaplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous Americans with various mtDNA mutations.[ 84] [ 85] [ 86] North America andGreenland derived from later populations.[ 87]
Arising before European contact:
Comancheria (1770-1850) has also been described by some scholars as a Native American empire which arose after European contact.
Thesecomplex societies developed cities before European contact.
Technological and social periods [ edit ] The Andes, Mesoamerica, and eastern North America are considered centers that independently developed agriculture, a process known globally as theNeolithic Revolution .
The technological and social development of pre-Columbian cultures are conventionally classified intofive archaeological stages :
Lithic stage orPaleo-Indian - hunter-gatherers using stone tools and weaponsArchaic stage - first settlements, first crops, subsistenceFormative stage - pottery, weaving, sedentary agriculture, ceremonial centersClassic stage - metallurgy, craft specialization, urbanism, theocracyPost-Classic stage - advanced metallurgy, complex urbanism, militarism, secularizationIn North America, the later stages are grouped instead into theWoodland period andMississippian culture .
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America included for some cultures equivalents to EurasianCopper Age andBronze Age technology:
TheIron Age in Eurasia is defined by the production of iron tools viasmelting ; iron smelting was never developed natively in the Americas. Unsmelted iron was used Andeana and Mesoamerican cultures for mirrors, decorative and ceremonial items, starting fires, and small hammers. Iron magnets were apparently used by the Olmec and Chavin to align monuments. Smelted iron from shipwrecked East Asian vessels was used in the Pacific Northwest before European contact.
^ "Culture Areas Index" .the Canadian Museum of Civilization .Archived from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved2009-08-18 .^ "Dena'ina." Archived 2016-11-15 at theWayback Machine Alaska Native Language Center. Accessed December 10, 2016.^ "Slavey" .The Canadian Encyclopedia . Historica Canada.Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved10 December 2016 .^ Suttles, Wayne (1990). "Introduction".Northwest Coast . Vol. 7. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 9– 12.^ Krauss, Michael E. (1970).Eyak Dictionary .University of Alaska andMassachusetts Institute of Technology . ^ Campbell, Lyle (1997).American Indian Languages : The Historical Linguistics of Native America . Oxford:Oxford University Press . pp. 396 n. 29.ISBN 978-0-19-514050-7 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Sturtevant and Trigger ix ^a b c d "Preamble."Constitution of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma Archived 2013-10-07 at theWayback Machine . Retrieved 5 Dec 2012. ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag "Cultural Thesaurus" Archived 2010-06-24 at theWayback Machine .National Museum of the American Indian . Accessed 8 April 2014.^a b c d e f Sturtevant and Trigger 241 ^a b c d Sturtevant and Trigger 198 ^a b c d e Goddard 72 ^ Goddard 72 and 237 ^a b c d e Goddard 237 ^ Goddard 72, 237–38 ^a b c Goddard 238 ^ Goddard 72 and 238 ^a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 290 ^a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Trigger 161 ^a b c d e f g h i j Sturtevant and Fogelson, 293 ^a b c d e f g h i j k Sturtevant and Fogelson, 81–82 ^a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 291 ^a b c d Vest, Jay Hansford C. (Winter–Spring 2005)."An Odyssey among the Iroquois: A History of Tutelo Relations in New York" American Indian Quarterly .29 (1/2):124– 55.doi :10.1353/aiq.2005.0072 .JSTOR 4138803 . ^ Brooks, Rebecca Beatrice."Native American Tribes in Massachusetts" .History of Massachusetts . Retrieved15 November 2021 . ^ Sturtevant and Trigger 255 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Sturtevant and Fogelson, 69 ^a b c d e f Sturtevant and Fogelson, 205 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sturtevant and Fogelson, 214 ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 673 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Sturtevant and Fogelson, ix ^a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Fogelson, 374 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sturtevant, 617 ^ Folgelson, ed. (2004), p. 315 ^a b c d Frank, Andrew K."Indian Removal" .The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture . Retrieved28 April 2024 . ^ Hann, John H. (2006).The Native American World Beyond Apalachee . University Press of Florida. pp. 53– 56.ISBN 978-0-8130-2982-5 ^a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 188 ^a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 598–99 ^a b c d e Hann, John H. (2006).The Native American World Beyond Apalachee . University Press of Florida. p. 87.ISBN 978-0-8130-2982-5 ^a b c Sturtevant and Fogelson, 302 ^ Hann 1993 ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 78, 668 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hann 1996, 5–13 ^ Milanich 1999, p. 49. ^ Milanich 1996, p. 46. ^ Hann 2003:11 ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 190 ^a b c d e f D'Azevedo, ix ^ D'Azevedo, 161–62 ^a b c Loether, Christopher."Shoshones" Archived 2014-11-10 at theWayback Machine .Encyclopedia of the Great Plains . Retrieved 20 Oct 2013. ^a b c Shimkin 335 ^a b c d e f Murphy and Murphy 306 ^a b c Murphy and Murphy 287 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Thomas, Pendleton, and Cappannari 280–83 ^a b c d e f g Pritzker, 230 ^a b c d e f D'Azevedo, 339 ^a b c d D'Azevedo, 340 ^ Nicholas, Walter S."A Short History of Johnsondale" . RRanch.org. Archived fromthe original on 2010-10-31. Retrieved2010-06-04 . ^ Pritzker 112 ^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au Heizer ix ^ Heizer 205–07 ^ Heizer 190 ^ Heizer 593 ^ Heizer 769 ^ Heizer 249 ^a b c d e f g h i "Mexico: Map" . Ethnologue.Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved16 November 2015 .^ "Paipai Language (Akwa'ala)" Archived 2010-09-26 at theWayback Machine .Native Languages of the Americas . Retrieved 10 Sept 2010.^a b c d Steward, Julian H. (1948) Editor.Handbook of South American Indians. Volume 4 The Circum-Caribbean Tribes . Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143. ^ "Aboriginal Roots of Cuban Culture" Archived 2012-03-26 at theWayback Machine . (retrieved 9 July 2011)^a b c d "Prehistory of the Caribbean Culture Area" Archived 2011-08-05 at theWayback Machine .Southeast Archaeological Center . (retrieved 9 July 2011)^ "Cacaopera" Archived 2019-09-13 at theWayback Machine . UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (retrieved 1 Dec 2011)^a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x "Languages of Bolivia" Archived 2012-10-02 at theWayback Machine .Ethnologue . Retrieved 23 Oct 2012.^ "Apiaká: Introduction" Archived 2012-03-30 at theWayback Machine . Instituto Socioambiental: Povos Indígenas no Brasil. Retrieved 28 March 2012^ "Huachipaeri" Archived 2011-11-16 at theWayback Machine .Ethnologue . Retrieved 18 Feb 2012.^a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Cultural Thesaurus" Archived 2011-04-29 at theWayback Machine . National Museum of the American Indian. (retrieved 18 Feb 2011)^ "Puelche" .Encyclopædia Britannica .Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved1 December 2016 .^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.ISBN 1-55671-159-X [1] . ^ "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas" (PDF) .Department of Biology, University College, London; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Caracas, Venezuela; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Parana´, Curitiba, Brazil; 5Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque; 6Laboratorio de Gene´tica Humana, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota´; Victoria Hospital, Prince Albert, Canada; Subassembly of Medical Sciences, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Laboratorio de Gene´tica Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellı´n, Colombia; Université de Montréal . University College London 73:524–539. 2003. Archived fromthe original (PDF) on 2019-04-30. Retrieved2010-01-22 .^ Orgel L (2004)."Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world" (PDF) .Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol .39 (2):99– 123.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.537.7679 doi :10.1080/10409230490460765 .PMID 15217990 .Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-13. Retrieved2010-01-19 . ^a b Tymchuk, Wendy (2008)."Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q" . Genebase Systems. Archived fromthe original (Verbal tutorial possible) on 2010-06-22. Retrieved2009-11-21 .Haplogroups are defined by unique mutation events such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs. These SNPs mark the branch of a haplogroup, and indicate that all descendants of that haplogroup at one time shared a common ancestor. The Y-DNA SNP mutations were passed from father to son over thousands of years. Over time, additional SNPs occur within a haplogroup, leading to new lineages. These new lineages are considered subclades of the haplogroup. Each time a new mutation occurs, there is a new branch in the haplogroup, and therefore a new subclade. Haplogroup Q, possibly the youngest of the 20 Y-chromosome haplogroups, originated with the SNP mutation M242 in a man from Haplogroup P that likely lived in Siberia approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years before present ^ Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002).The Journey of Man – A Genetic Odyssey (Digitised online by Google books) .Random House .ISBN 0-8129-7146-9 Archived from the original on 2016-05-18. Retrieved2009-11-21 . ^ "First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover – Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News" .Archived from the original on 2012-10-10. Retrieved2009-11-18 .Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken page 2 Archived March 13, 2012, at theWayback Machine ^ Than, Ker (2008)."New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop" .National Geographic Society . Archived fromthe original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved2010-01-23 .Over time descendants developed a unique culture—one that was different from the original migrants' way of life in Asia but which contained seeds of the new cultures that would eventually appear throughout the Americas ^ "Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q" . Genebase Systems. 2009. Archived fromthe original on 2011-05-10. Retrieved2009-11-22 .^ Ruhlen M (November 1998)."The origin of the Na-Dene" .Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America .95 (23):13994– 96.Bibcode :1998PNAS...9513994R .doi :10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 PMC 25007 PMID 9811914 . ^ Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF (January 2004)."High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas" .Molecular Biology and Evolution .21 (1):164– 75.doi :10.1093/molbev/msh009 PMID 14595095 . ^ Juliette Saillard; Peter Forster; Niels Lynnerup; Hans-Jürgen Bandelt; Søren Nørby (2000)."mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion" .Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg .Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved2009-11-22 .The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America. ^ A. Torroni; T. G. Schurr; C. C. Yang; EJE. Szathmary; R. C. Williams; M. S. Schanfield; G. A. Troup; W. C. Knowler; D. N. Lawrence; K. M. Weiss; D. C. Wallace (January 1992)."Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations" .Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia .130 (1). Genetics Society of America:153– 62.Archived from the original on 2009-02-20. Retrieved2009-11-28 .The divergence time for the Nadene portion of the HaeIII np 663 lineage was about 6,000–10,000 years. Hence, the ancestral Nadene migrated from Asia independently and considerably more recently than the progenitors of the Amerinds D'Azevedo, Warren L., volume editor.Handbook of North American Indians , Volume 11: Great BasinISBN 978-0-16-004581-3 Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed.The Spanish Missions of "La Florida" . Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993.ISBN 0-8130-1232-5 Hann, John H.A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions . Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996.ISBN 0-8130-1424-7 Hann, John H. (2003).Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513–1763 . University Press of Florida.ISBN 0-8130-2645-8 Heizer, Robert F., volume editor.Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978.ISBN 978-0-16-004574-5 Milanich, Jerald (1999).The Timucua ISBN 0-631-21864-5 . RetrievedJune 11, 2010 .Pritzker, Barry M.A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1 Steward, Julian H., editor.Handbook of South American Indians , Volume 4: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor.Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast . Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978.ASIN B000NOYRRA . Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor.Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast . Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004.ISBN 0-16-072300-0
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