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TheClarion–Clipperton zone[1] (CCZ) orClarion–Clipperton fracture zone[2] is an environmental management area of thePacific Ocean, administered by theInternational Seabed Authority (ISA).[3] It includes the Clarion fracture zone and the Clipperton fracture zone, geological submarinefracture zones. Clarion and Clipperton are two of the five major lineations of the northern Pacific floor, and were discovered by theScripps Institution of Oceanography in 1954. The CCZ is regularly considered fordeep-sea mining due to the abundant presence ofmanganese nodules.
The CCZ extends around 4,500 miles (7,240 km) East to West[4] and spans approximately 4,500,000 square kilometres (1,700,000 sq mi).[5] The fractures themselves are unusually mountainous topographical features.
In 2016, investigation of the seafloor in the zone was found to contain an abundance and diversity of life – more than half of the species collected were new to science.[6]
The fractures can be divided into four parts:
TheNova-Canton Trough is often seen as an extension of the fractures.[8]
The zone containsnodules made up of valuablerare-earth and other minerals. Some of these play an essential role for theenergy transition to alow carbon economy.[9] These nodules form around bone fragments or shark teeth. Micronodules then further aggregate and accrete into the clumps targeted for harvesting.[10]
The Clipperton fracture zone is the southernmost of the north east Pacific Ocean lineations. It begins east-northeast of theLine Islands and ends in theMiddle America Trench off the coast of Central America,[4][12][7] forming a rough line on the same latitude asKiribati andClipperton Island, from which it gets its name.
The Clarion fracture zone is the next Pacific lineation north of Clipperton FZ. It is bordered on the northeast byClarion Island, the westernmost of theRevillagigedo Islands, from which it gets its name. Both fracture zones were discovered by the U.S. research vessels "Horizon" and "Spencer F. Baird" in 1954.[13]
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The CCZ has been divided into 16 mining claims spanning approximately 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi). A further nine areas, each covering 160,000 square kilometres (62,000 sq mi), have been set aside for conservation.[1] The International Seabed Authority (ISA) estimates that the total amount of nodules in the Clarion–Clipperton zone exceeds 21 billion tons (Bt), containing about 5.95 Bt ofmanganese, 0.27 Bt ofnickel, 0.23 Bt ofcopper and 0.05 Bt ofcobalt.[14] The ISA has issued 19 licences for mining exploration within this area.[15] Exploratory full-scale extraction operations were set to begin in late 2021.[2] ISA aimed to publish the deep sea mining code in July 2023. Commercial license applications were to be accepted for review thereafter.[16]
The so-called two-year rule states that before regulations are passed, a member nation has the authority to notify ISA that it wants to mine. This starts a two-year clock during which the ISA can come up with rules. If it fails to do so, the mining is implicitly approved.Nauru gave notice in July 2021, creating a deadline of July 9, 2023. ISA's next meeting, however, begins a day later, on July 10.[10]
Areas of the fracture zone that have been licensed for mining are home to a diversity of deep-seaxenophyophores. A 2017 study found 34 novel species in the area. Xenophyophores are highly sensitive to human disturbances, such that mining may adversely affect them. They play akeystone role in benthic ecosystems such that their removal could amplify ecological consequences.[17] The nodules are considered "critical for food web integrity".[18] The zone hosts corals, sea cucumbers, worms, dumbo octopuses and many other species.[10]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology andTU Delft use their ISA observer status to investigate the potential impact of collecting these minerals and compare it to theenvironmental and human impact ofterrestrial mining.[19][20] In April 2021, scientists from JPI oceans project carried out in depth studies into mining technology and its possible effect on the seabed.[21]
Mining has the potential for large environmental impacts. The impact of the release oftailings from nodule processing into the water column on pelagic organisms or the detrimental effects they may have on the benthic communities below are unknown.[22]
Along with the xenophyophores, many types of species reside in the Clarion–Clipperton zone: protists, microbial prokaryotes, and various fauna including megafauna, macrofauna, and meiofauna, each distinguished by size.[23] Due to the lack of historical research in the region—in large part because of the inaccessibility, monetary, and physical cost without modern technology—very little is known about life in the CCZ. The increasing tests in the region have led to the discovery of many new species, suggesting both a high species richness and high species rarity within the CCZ. It seems thatpolymetallic nodules in the region, the target of muchdeep-sea mining, are crucial for fostering a high level ofbiodiversity on the sea floor. Even so, there are many gaps in the current understanding of the ecosystem roles played, life history traits, sensitivities, spatial or temporal variabilities, and resilience of these species.[24]
Much of what is known about the potential environmental impact is a result of a dredging pilot test conducted in 1978. In the years since the tests, the region has been monitored. Many species here are more susceptible to the negative effects of environmental shifts as change at these depths is atypical. Specifically looking atnematodes, it has been determined that there is a lowerspecies richness and lower totalbiomass in the area where the dredging occurred as compared to the neighboring spaces. Additionally, the composition of species and the frequencies at which they are found change with human interference. The removal of polymetallic nodules, as proposed through deep-sea mining, would decrease suitable habitat as many species of nematodes reside within the upper five centimeters where nodules exist, too. Even those species that do remain will face changes to their habitat conditions as the new top layer of sediment after the removal of the nodules will be significantly denser. The lowsedimentation levels and minimal currents show that disruption in the CCZ would have long-lasting effects on the environment; the upturned sediment remains unsettled even decades later.[25] Additionally, nodules form for millions of years; as such their removal would fundamentally alter the ecosystem for millennia to come. The species directly dependent on them, and all of their subsequent linkages or environmental functions would see vast changes that could not be quickly restored after the damage is complete.[24]
The vast majority of relevant spheres are still lacking adequate research. What is known makes clear that many aspects of deep-sea mining activity would endanger species in the Clarion–Clipperton zone; they face threats of being crushed by machinery, dispelled in sediment plumes, smothered by unsettled sediment, the loss of resources and habitat, etc. This does not include the threats posed by noise and light pollution—the effects of which are still largely unknown.[25]