Civil conscription is the obligation of civilians to perform mandatory labour for thegovernment. This kind of work has to correspond with the exceptions in international agreements, otherwise it could fall under the category ofunfree labour. There are two basic kinds of civilconscriptions. On the one hand, a compulsory service can be ordered on a temporary basis duringwartimes and other times of emergency, like severe economic crisis or extraordinary natural events to provide basic services to the population. These include, but are not limited to,medical care,food supplies, defense industry supplies or cleanup efforts, following a severe weather or environmental disaster for the duration of the emergency. Therefore, it generally makesstriking illegal for the duration of thecivil mobilization.[1]On the other hand, a revolving mandatory service may be required for a longer period of time, for example, to ensure community fire protection or to carry out infrastructure work at a local or community level.
Civil conscription is an exception of theForced Labour Convention of 1930 of theInternational Labour Organization (ILO) and thereforeunfree labour shall not include:[2]
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The civil conscription services can be classified into three basic types:
In times of extraordinary events, such as in times ofwar, ineconomic crisis, in the event ofnatural disasters or during the occurrence ofepidemics or pandemics, a civil duty may be established to perform the tasks deemed necessary by thegovernment for a certain period of time, to ensure the restoration of former status quo. These important tasks include the basic supply of the population, such as medical care, food supply, the defense industry for the duration of the war or a state of emergency, and the removal of damage to the infrastructure after severe weather or environmental disasters.
A government can order a civil service duty to be performed repetitive for a longer period of time, for example to ensure thefire protection of a municipality or to carry out simple work at the municipal level, that smaller municipalities are unable to do financially or due to lack of manpower.
Some countries have implemented a compulsory service for younger age groups or educational groups to convey "national values" and to strengthen national cohesion, which in part has to be done in military, social or school-like institutions.
InAustria in addition to the current mandatorymilitary service for male citizens in theAustrian Armed Forces and the legally connectedalternative civilian services, citizens can be conscripted to perform following services:
According to article L2215-1 of theCode général des collectivités territoriales (General Law of Local Authorities), theprefect of adepartment may take measures for themunicipalities of the respective department to maintain public order, as well as for the prevention of danger in general and for health protection in general.[7] Among other regulations, this law allows to conscript system-preserving professional groups to provide essential services. In 2022, oil refinery workers were required to take up work during a strike to ensure the supply of fuel.[8][9]
During asanitary state of emergency (French:état d'urgence sanitaire) it is possible to draft personnel of necessary professional groups to combat a health disaster, like during theCOVID-19 pandemic in France.[10]
In 1998, theJournée Défense et Citoyenneté (JDC), the "Defence and Citizenship Day", was established by theFrenchPresident,Jacques Chirac, after suspending theconscription for themilitary service. It is a one-day program that deals with citizenship,Duty of Remembrance, awareness on defence, army, nation, European issues etc.[11]
In 2019, PresidentEmmanuel Macron introduced a compulsory service, theService national universel (SNU), the "General National Service", which will be mandatory for all citizens aged 16–25 within the next century. It lasts for one month, the service can be done in both civilian and military institutions. The aim of this general civil conscription is to communicate French values, to strengthen social cohesion and to promote social engagement.[12][13][14]
InGermany during a "State of Defence" male citizens could be drafted for themilitary service in theBundeswehr or for amandatory service in theborder guard, although conscription is suspended for peacetime. Beside this during the state of defense theconstitution allows civil conscription as well, female citizens between the ages of 18 and 55 could be called to perform medical duties, male citizens could be drafted for a service in acivil protection force. If required, the freedom to practice one's profession may be limited.[15] During the state of defense theFederal Employment Agency (BA) receives special powers to order (unemployed) persons to jobs, that cannot be ensured on a voluntary basis. The conscripted persons can be used in following assignments:
Depending on the respectivestate's legislations and in addition to the - in theory possible - mandatory civil service obligations at the federal legislation level, there are three more civil conscription services possible, that allowcommunities to draft citizens:
From time to time there are proposals for civil conscription of all citizens for general (social) services, that are considered to be legally problematic and could violate not only international agreements and the regulations of the German constitution as well, without a constitutional amendment.[17][18][19] Those proposals are the establishment of aSoziales Pflichtjahr (German for "obligatory year of social service") orBürgerarbeit (German for "citizens´ work"), aworkfare-style draft for unemployed persons. In 2020, during theCOVID-19 pandemic in Germany the state governments ofLower Saxony andNorth Rhine-Westphalia planned to establish a compulsory service for doctors and medical staff in the event of anepidemic and the legislative proposals were already in preparation. However, after protests by medical associations and other interest groups, the plans were ceased.[20][21][22][23]
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InGhana, students who graduate from accrediteduniversity are required by law to do a one-year national service to the country. TheNational Service Secretariat (NSS) is theGovernment of Ghana agency mandated to formulate policies and structures for national service. The mandatory civilian service can be fulfilled in youth programs, agriculture, health and local government institutions.[24] There is currently no military conscription in Ghana.[citation needed]
In 1967, in connection with theSix-Day War, theIsraeliKnesset passed the "Emergency Labor Service Act" to ensure the supply of essential goods and military equipment. In 1997 and 2020 in the wake of theCOVID-19 pandemic, the law was repeatedly adapted.[25] In the event of a crisis and the implementation of the "Emergency Labor Service Act", the law obliges every resident of Israel, with the exception of police officers, soldiers, pregnant women and mothers of babies, to a compulsory labor service in "essential companies". These essential companies are relevant to the security of the country or are maintaining basic services, such as electricity , water supply, communication and food supply.[26] Employees must appear on time and can be transferred to other offices anytime.
TheConstitution of Malaysia, Part II, article 6, states, that all forms of forced labor are prohibited, but parliament may by law provide a compulsory service for national purposes.[27]
InNigeria, there is no military conscription, but since 1973 graduates of Nigerianuniversities and polytechnics are required to serve in the mandatoryNational Youth Service Corps (NYSC). TheNigerian government wants to involve Nigerian graduates in nation building and the development of the country. The compulsory service lasts one year and graduates are ineligible for employment in governmental establishments (and most private establishments) until they have completed the mandatory service or obtained the relevant exemptions.[citation needed]
Umuganda is a national holiday inRwanda taking place on the last Saturday of every month for mandatory nationwide community work from 08:00 to 11:00. Participation in umuganda is required by law, and failure to participate can result in afine. The program was most recently re-established in 2009, and has resulted in notable improvement in the cleanliness of Rwanda.[28][29][30]
During anestado de alarma, the "state of alarm", theSpanish government can impose civil conscription. This duty may extend to all or part of the national territory and to selective professional groups in the event of one of the following serious disturbances of normality:
The municipal rescue servicea are responsible for handling the majority of accidents that occur in Sweden, such as fires, traffic accidents, drowning incidents and releases of hazardous substances. The municipal rescue services have both full-time and part-time employees. In order to carry out its mission, the municipal rescue services also has the opportunity to use conscripted personnel, often organized into rescue guards(räddningsvärn).[31]
Rescue guards can be located in places where it takes a long time for rescue stations with employed personnel to respond to an alarm, such as on islands and villages far from larger urban areas. Rescue guards can also be organized to reinforce municipal rescue services during extensive and long-term operations. The tasks that the rescue guards have are determined by the risks that exist in the municipality and how the municipal rescue service has chosen to organize its work. Based on the assignments the rescue guards have, its members are trained by the municipal rescue service to be able to perform their tasks efficiently.[31]
Civil conscription is, along with military conscription and general service conscription, part of thetotal defense duty that is mandatory for all residents of Sweden, male and female, from the 16th to the 70th years of age. This is an obligation to participate in activities required to prepare Sweden for war. The Swedish Government has decided to reintroduce short basic training for civilian conscripts in municipal emergency services and in operation and maintenance of electricity production and network operations.[32] In 2025, the governement tasked theNational Board of Health and Welfare with planning the introduction of civilian conscription for the health and medical care services. The aim is to strengthen the healthcare sector's capacity in times of war and emergencies.[33][34]
To increase Sweden's ability to plan and strengthen personnel supply within the total defense, civilian conscription was in 2024 activated for the emergency services. TheSwedish Civil Contingencies Agency is in charge of assessing the individuals that will be inducted as civilian conscript in the municipal rescue services. The civilian conscripts must complete refresher training and will then be posted as a civilian in the municipal war-time resque organization by theSwedish Defence Conscription and Assessment Agency, either as a rescue worker or as a rescue officer. The assignment will be adapted to the conscript's qualifications and skills. The mandatory refresher course is ten days long and takes place at the training centers atRevinge andSandö.[35]
TheSwedish Power-Grid Agency is in charge of training 1,000 civilian conscripts for the electricity supply sector during the period 2025–2028. The civilian conscripts will be posted for repair duty in theelectrical grid organization and will become an important reinforcement resource during emergencies and war.[36]
In general, the political system inSwitzerland is characterized by the so-calledmilitia-system, where civilian service tasks basically are carried out on a part-time basis, on voluntary or mandatory basis. Currently, not only thecompulsory military service in theSwiss Armed Forces is backed on the militia-system, many political and civilian service duties are maintained by the militia secondary activity. For example, members ofcantonal or federalparliaments orgovernments in general engage on part-time basis.
The duty in Swiss civil defense and protection institutions is mandatory for inhabitants as well.[37]
In thecanton ofFribourg, in somemunicipalities a compulsorycommunity service is in force, such as the municipalities ofChâtillon orAuboranges. Depending on the municipal regulations, either homeowners or the entire adult population are obliged to work a few days a year for the municipality. Thosecorvées communales are services to reduce municipal taxes, that obliges community citizens to do certain physical work. Anyone who does not participate must pay an additional fee.[38]
Unlike to the organization offire brigades in most countries as professional orvoluntary fire departments, in Switzerland there are basicallymilitia fire brigades,compulsory fire brigades with drafted members.
TheBritish overseas territory ofPitcairn Islands, which has a population of about 50 and noincome orsales tax, has a system of "public work" whereby all able-bodied people are required to perform, when called upon, jobs such as road maintenance and repairs to public buildings.[39]
To prevent a doctors strike the Belgium government, in April 1964, issued a civil mobilization order for hospital doctors andmilitary doctors.[40]
During thecommunist rule inCzechoslovakia the government announced a non-remunerated activity programme calledAction Z (in Czech: Akce Z) for the population. Officially, it was a voluntary work, but in fact it was mandatory. The participation at the Action Z programme was documented and citizens who did not participate or whose participation was unsatisfactory, were threatened with consequences at their regular work.[citation needed]
InEast Germany, the officially volunteerSubbotnik service wasde facto obligatory the population. With this service, the local communities helped in the maintenance of local infrastructure.[41]
By legislation, if necessary it was possible to draft civilians to theCivil Defense Force in East Germany.
In Greece, the introduction of civil conscription, called "political mobilization", was made possible by law in 1974 and several governments have made use of it.
As early as 1979, bank employees and several times in the 1980s and 1990s employees of traffic and transport companies were obliged to perform work.
Due to theGreek debt crisis from 2010 to 2014, certain professional groups were made subject to civil conscription in order to provide public services as a national interest. For example, truck drivers, employees of transport companies, employees of municipalities and teachers were obliged to perform at work.[42][43][44]
| Year | Workers |
|---|---|
| 2010 | Truck drivers[45] |
| 2011 | Municipal cleaning staff |
| 2013 | Workers in Athens metro, tram and electric railway[46] |
| 2013 | Maritime workers[47] |
| 2013 | High school teachers[48] |
| 2014 | Electricity power workers[49] |
Due to the fact, that civil conscription was very unpopular, the government under the ruling partySyriza abolished civil conscription in 2015.
Although civil conscription was abolished, the parliament again created a legal basis during theCOVID-19 pandemic in Greece in 2020. Based on the new law, freelance doctors were required to serve in state hospitals in March 2021.[50][51]
Apart from the use offorced labour under German rule during World War II for millions of people, theNazi German government ordered compulsory work of the civilian population as well, as a part ofNazi labor market policy and to spread Nazipropaganda.[52][53] As early as 1934 all students leaving school after 8 years were obliged to join theLandjahr (countryside year) for labour in agriculture. In addition to that it was compulsory for women until the age of 25 to serve thePflichtjahr (compulsory year), which was basically in the field of housekeeping. Starting in 1935 theReich Labour Service was mandatory for all male citizens.
TheNational Youth Service (NYS) was ayouth service program implemented in 1981 by the government ofSeychelles that lasted two years until 1991, when it was reduced to a period of one year. It was a formerly compulsory civil service and included traditional educational curriculum, political education andparamilitary training. The Seychellois opposition opposed the program on the grounds, that it allegedly indoctrinated young adults with the rulingSeychelles People's Progressive Front'ssocialist ideology and that it rarely allowed its participants to visit their families. This mandatory service was ceased in November 1998.[citation needed]
Due to the severe course of theCOVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia, the state of emergency was declared in September 2020 by the government under the leadership ofSlovak Prime MinisterIgor Matovič. Among others legal rights, the government obliged medical personnel to work and to be transferred to other medical facilities. The right to strike was revoked.[54][55][56][57]
In Spain, during anestado de alarma, the "state of alarm", theSpanish government can impose civil conscription. This state of emergency has been declared to conscript different professional groups since the end ofFrancoist Spain a few times:
Due to a labour shortage between December 1943 and March 1948, because ofWorld War II and the aftermath, theBritish government started to draft civil conscripts, the so-calledBevin Boys, for the work incoal mines.[63]
