The nameLiguria predatesLatin and is of obscure origin. The LatinadjectivesLigusticum (as inMare Ligusticum) andLiguscus[4] reveal the original root of the name,ligusc-: in the Latin name -sc- was shortened to -s-, and later turned into the -r- ofLiguria, according torhotacism. CompareAncient Greek:λίγυς,romanized: Lígus,lit. 'a Ligurian, a person from Liguria' whenceLigustikḗλιγυστικήtransl. the name of the place Liguria.[5] The name derives from the ancientLigures people, although the territory of this people was much larger than the current administrative region; it included all of North-west Italy south to thePo river, and south-easternFrance.
The narrow strip of land is bordered by thesea, theAlps and theApennine Mountains. Some mountains rise above 2,000 m (6,600 ft); thewatershed line runs at an average altitude of about 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The highest point of the region is the summit ofMonte Saccarello (2,201 m; 7,221 ft).
Liguria is the third smallest Italian region afterAosta Valley andMolise, but is also one of the most densely populated, with apopulation density of 287 inhabitants/km2, much higher than the national average, and is fourth place afterCampania,Lombardy andLazio. However, there is much difference between inland mountain areas and coastal areas.
The region is crossed east to west by theLigurian Alps and theLigurian Apennines that form an interrupted chain, but discontinuous in its morphology, with stretches where the Alpine/Apennine ridge is extremely compact and high aligning very high mountain groups (north to Ventimiglia, a series of massifs which became French after the Second World War, rises up to altitudes of 2700–3000 m) while in other stretches (for example in the hinterland of Savona and Genoa) the mountain barrier is not very high and deeply crossed by short valleys and passes that do not reach 500 m above sea level (Bochetta di Altare, Passo dei Giovi, Crocetta d'Orero).
The winding arched extension goes fromVentimiglia toLa Spezia. Of this, 3,524.08 km2 (1,360.65 sq mi) are mountainous (65% of the total) and 891.95 km2 (344.38 sq mi) are hills (35% of the total). Liguria's natural reserves cover 12% of the entire region, or 600 km2 (230 sq mi) of land. They are made up of one national reserve, six large parks, two smaller parks and three nature reserves.
The continental shelf is very narrow and so steep it descends almost immediately to considerable depths along its 350-kilometre (220 mi) coastline. Except for thePortovenere andPortofino promontories, the coast is generally not very jagged and is often high. At the mouths of the biggest watercourses are small beaches, but there are no deep bays and natural harbours except atGenoa andLa Spezia.
The hills lying immediately beyond the coast together with the sea account for a mild climate year-round. Average winter temperatures are 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F) and summer temperatures are 23 to 24 °C (73 to 75 °F), which make for a pleasant stay even in the dead of winter. Rainfall can be abundant at times, as mountains very close to the coast create anorographic effect. Genoa andLa Spezia can see up to 2,000 mm (80 in) of rain in a year; other areas instead show the normal Mediterranean rainfall of 500 to 800 mm (20 to 30 in) annually.
As of 2023, according to the report on land consumption of the Higher Institute for Environmental Protection and Research,Marche and Liguria hold the Italian record for coastal overbuilding.[6][7]
TheItalian Riviera or Ligurian Riviera is the narrow coastal strip inItaly which lies between theLigurian Sea and the mountain chain formed by theMaritime Alps and theApennines. Longitudinally it extends from the border with France and theFrench Riviera (orCôte d'Azur) nearVentimiglia (a formercustoms post) eastwards to Capo Corvo (also known as Punta Bianca) which marks the eastern end of theGulf of La Spezia and is close to the regional border between Liguria andTuscany. The Italian Riviera thus includes nearly all of the coastline of Liguria. Historically the "Riviera" extended further to the west, through what is now French territory as far asMarseille.[8][9]
As a tourist centre, the Italian Riviera benefits from over 300 days of sunshine per year, and is known for its beaches, colourfully painted towns, natural environment, food, and luxury villas and hotels, as well as for its popular resort facilities, majoryachting and cruising areas with several marinas,festivals, golf courses, sailing, rock climbing and scenic views of centuries old farmhouses and cottages.[16]
Industries are concentrated in and around Genoa, Savona, and along the shores of the Gulf of La Spezia. Genoa and La Spezia are Italy's leading shipyards; La Spezia is Italy's major naval base, and Savona is a major centre of the Italian iron industry. Chemical, textile, and food industries are also important.[11]A number of streets and palaces in the center of Genoa and theCinque Terre National Park (which includesCinque Terre,Portovenere, and the islandsPalmaria,Tino andTinetto) are two of Italy's58 World Heritage Sites.
The Riviera's centre isGenoa, which divides it into two main sections: the Riviera di Ponente ("the coast of the setting sun"), extending westwards from Genoa to the French border; and the Riviera di Levante ("the coast of the rising sun") between Genoa and Capo Corvo. It is known for its mild climate and its reputation for a relaxed way of life, old fishing ports, and landscapes. It has been a popular destination for travellers andtourists since the time ofByron andPercy Shelley.
Many villages and towns in the area are internationally known, such asPortofino,Bordighera,Lerici and theCinque Terre. Many villages of Italian Riviera are counted amongI Borghi più belli d'Italia ("The most beautiful villages of Italy").[17] The part of the Riviera di Ponente centred onSavona, is called the Riviera delle Palme (the Riviera of palms); the part centred onSanremo, is the Riviera dei Fiori, after the long-establishedflower growing industry.
The Balzi Rossi caves, located on a cliff about 100 meters high, show traces of human occupation from the Middle Palaeolithic (300,000 years) to the foundation of the ancient city ofVentimiglia in Liguria. This constitutes the longest human occupation in the world of a geographical site.[18]
Evidence of human presence in Liguria dates back to prehistoric times. Near the port of Nice, in Terra Amata, traces of the oldest huts built by nomadic hunters, around300,000 years ago, have been found. The stratigraphy showed different settlement periods, with the remains of oval huts with a central hearth, chipped pebbles, scrapers and captured animals such as wild boar, turtles, Merk's rhinoceros, southern elephants, aurochs and various birds. Traces of Neanderthal Man have been found near Loano. In the caves of Toirano, signs of frequentation dating back to the end of the Upper Palaeolithic are visible. Remains reminiscent of Cro-Magnon Man have appeared in the Balzi Rossi cave in Ventimiglia. At the Arene Candide there is evidence of Neolithic and epigravettian strata dating between 20,000 and 18,700 years ago, while in the caves along the Pennavaira stream, in the valley of the same name in the Ingauno area, human remains have been found dating back as far as 7,000 BC.
Burial of an adolescent from the Upper Palaeolithic (29,000 years), having led archaeologists to nickname him the "young prince". About fifteen years old, he lay on his back on a layer of red ocher seven meters from the surface facing south, he wore a headgear decorated with shell beads and pierced deer teeth and squirrel tails on the thorax (Liguria region).[19]
Copper begins to be mined from the middle of the4th millennium BC in Liguria with the Libiola and Monte Loreto mines dated to3700 BC.These are the oldest copper mines in the western Mediterranean basin.[20]
From the 2nd millennium B.C. (Neolithic), there are records of the presence of Ligurians over a vast territory, corresponding to most of northern Italy.
It is commonly thought that the ancient Ligurians settled on the Mediterranean coastline, divided in several tribes, from theRhone to theArno (so we are told byPolybius), pushing their presence as far as the Spanish Mediterranean coast to the west and the Tiber to the south-east, colonizing the coasts of major islands such asCorsica,Sardinia andSicily. Numerous ceramic artefacts remain of them.[21]
ThePolcevera bronze tablet, evidence of Genoa's Roman and pre-Roman past
The Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC.[22] In ancient times this area was inhabited byLigures (ancient people after whom Liguria is named). According to excavations carried out in the city between 1898 and 1910, the Ligure population that lived in Genoa maintained trade relations with theEtruscans and theGreeks, since several objects from these populations were found.[23][24] In the 5th century BC the first town, oroppidum, was founded at the top of the hill today called Castello (Castle), which is now inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia (Σταλìα), referred to in this way byArtemidorus Ephesius andPomponius Mela; this toponym is possibly preserved in the name of Staglieno, some 3 km (2 mi) from the coast. Stalia had an alliance withRome through afoedus aequum (equal pact) in the course of theSecond Punic War (218-201 BC). TheCarthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after theCarthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC, it received municipal rights. The originalcastrum then expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trade goods included skins, timber, and honey. Goods were moved to and from Genoa's hinterland, including major cities likeTortona andPiacenza. An amphitheater was also found there among other archaeological remains from the Roman period.
During the firstPunic War, the ancient Ligurians were divided, some of them siding withCarthage, others, including the inhabitants of Stalia (laterGenoa), with Rome. UnderAugustus, Liguria was designated aregion of Italy (Regio IX Liguria) stretching from the coast to the banks of thePo River. The great Roman roads (Aurelia and Julia Augusta on the coast, Postumia and Aemilia Scauri towards the inland) helped strengthen territorial unity and increase communication and trade. Important towns developed on the coast, of which evidence is left in the ruins ofAlbenga, Ventimiglia andLuni. In 180 BC, the Romans, in order to dispose of Ligurian rebels in their seeking of theconquest of Gaul, they deported 47,000 LiguriApuani, confining them to the Samnite area betweenAvellino andBenevento.[citation needed]
Between the 4th and the 10th centuries, Liguria was dominated by theByzantines, theLombards of KingRothari (about 641) and theFranks (about 774). It was also invaded bySaracen andNorman raiders. In the 10th century, once the danger of pirates decreased, the Ligurian territory was divided into three marches: Obertenga (east), Arduinica (west) and Aleramica (centre). In the 11th and 12th centuries, the marches were split into fees, and then with the strengthening of the bishops' power, the feudal structure began to partially weaken. The main Ligurian towns, especially on the coast, became city-states, over whichGenoa soon extended its rule. Inland, however, fiefs belonging to noble families survived for a very long time.[vague]
Between the 11th century (when the Genoese ships played a major role in the first crusade, carrying knights and troops to the Middle-East for a fee) and the 15th century, theRepublic of Genoa experienced an extraordinary political and commercial success (mainly spice trades with the Orient). It was one of the most powerful maritime republics in theMediterranean from the 12th to the 14th century: after the decisive victory in theBattle of Meloria (1284), it acquired control over theTyrrhenian Sea and was present in the nerve centres of power during the last phase of the Byzantine empire,having colonies up toBlack Sea andCrimean.
After the introduction of the title of doge for life (1339) and the election ofSimone Boccanegra, Genoa resumed its struggles against theMarquisate of Finale and the Counts ofLaigueglia and it conquered again the territories ofFinale,Oneglia andPorto Maurizio. In spite of its military and commercial successes, Genoa fell prey to the internal factions which put pressure on its political structure. Due to the vulnerable situation, the rule of the republic went to the hands of theVisconti family ofMilan. After their expulsion by the popular forces under Boccanegra's lead, the republic remained in Genoese hands until 1396, when the internal instability led the dogeAntoniotto Adorno to surrender the title of Seignior of Genoa to the king of France. The French were driven away in 1409 and Liguria went back under Milanese control in 1421, thus remaining until 1435.
The Italian explorerChristopher Columbus leads an expedition to the New World, 1492.His voyages are celebrated as the discovery of the Americas from a European perspective, and they opened anew era in the history of humankind and sustained contact between the two worlds.
The alternation of French and Milanese dominions over Liguria went on until the first half of the 16th century. The French influence ceased in 1528, whenAndrea Doria allied with the powerful king of Spain and imposed an aristocratic government, which gave the republic relative stability for about 250 years.
Genoese explorerChristopher Columbus's speculative proposal to reach theEast Indies by sailing westward received the support of the Spanish crown, which saw in it an opportunity to gain the upper hand over rival powers in the contest for the lucrativespice trade withAsia. During his first voyage in 1492, instead of reaching Japan as he had intended, Columbus landed in theBahamas archipelago, at a locale he namedSan Salvador. Over the course of three more voyages, Columbus visited theGreater andLesser Antilles, as well as theCaribbean coast ofVenezuela and Central America, claiming them for theSpanish Empire.
The value of trade routes through Genoa to the Near East declined during theAge of Discovery, when Portuguese explorers discovered routes to Asia around theCape of Good Hope. The international crises of the seventeenth century, which ended for Genoa with the 1684bombardment byLouis XIV's fleet, restored French influence over the republic. Consequently, the Ligurian territory was crossed by thePiedmontese andAustrian armies when these two states came into conflict with France. Austria occupied Genoa in 1746, but theHabsburg troops were driven away by a popular insurrection. Napoleon's first Italian campaign marked the end of the oligarchic Genoese state, which was transformed into theLigurian Republic, modelled on theFrench Republic. After the union of Oneglia and Loano (1801), Liguria was annexed to theFrench Empire (1805) and divided byNapoleon into three departments:Montenotte (capitalSavona),Gênes (capitalGenoa) andApennins (capitalChiavari).
A map of theCounty of Nice western part of Liguria showing the area of theItalian kingdom of Sardinia annexed in 1860 to France (light brown). The area in red had already become part of France before 1860.
After a short period of independence in 1814, theCongress of Vienna (1815) decided that Liguria should be annexed to theKingdom of Sardinia. The Genoese uprising against the House of Savoy in 1821, which was put down with great bloodshed, aroused the population's national sentiments. Some of the most prestigious figures ofRisorgimento were born in Liguria (Giuseppe Mazzini,Mameli,Nino Bixio). Italian patriot and generalGiuseppe Garibaldi, who was born in the neighbouringNice (then part of theSardinian state), started hisExpedition of the Thousand on the evening of 5 May 1860 from a rock in Quarto, a quarter of Genoa.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the region's economic growth was remarkable: steel mills and ship yards flourished along the coast fromImperia toLa Spezia, while the port of Genoa became the main commercial hub of industrializing Northern Italy. During theSecond World War, Liguria experienced heavy bombings, hunger and two years of occupation by theGerman troops, against whom a liberation struggle was led—among the most effective in Italy. When Allied troops eventually entered Genoa, they were welcomed by Italian partisans who, in a successful insurrection, had freed the city and accepted the surrender of the local German command. For this feat, the city was awarded the gold medal for military valour.
The population density of Liguria is much higher than the national average (300 inhabitants per km2, or 770 per mi2), being only less thanCampania's,Lombardy's andLazio's. In theMetropolitan City of Genoa, it reaches almost 500 inhabitants per km2, whereas in the provinces ofImperia andSavona it is less than 200 inhabitants per km2. The Spanish travellerPedro Tafur, noting it from sea in 1436, remarked "To one who does not know it, the whole coast from Savona to Genoa looks like one continuous city, so well inhabited is it, and so thickly studded with houses,"[29] and today over 80% of the regional population still lives permanently near to the coast, where all the four major cities above 50,000 are located:Genoa (pop. 610,000),La Spezia (pop. 95,000),Savona (pop. 62,000) andSanremo (pop. 56,000).
The population of Liguria has been declining since the census in 1971, most markedly in the cities of Genoa, Savona and La Spezia. The age pyramid now looks more like a 'mushroom' resting on a fragile base.[30] The negative trend has been partially interrupted only in the last decade when, after a successful economic recovery, the region has attracted consistent fluxes of immigrants. As of 2008[update], the Italian national institute of statistics, ISTAT, estimated that 90,881 foreign-born immigrants live in Liguria, equal to 5.7% of the total regional population.[31]
Ligurian agriculture has increased its specialisation pattern in high-quality products (flowers,wine,olive oil) and has thus managed to maintain the gross value-added per worker at a level much higher than the national average (the difference was about 42% in 1999).[32] The value of flower production represents over 75% of the agriculture sector turnover, followed by animal farming (11.2%) and vegetable growing (6.4%).
Sanremo Casino (officialItalian:Casinò Municipale di Sanremo) is a gambling and entertainment complex located inSanremo, on theItalian Riviera. The Casino's building was designed by French architect Eugène Ferret, opening 14 January 1905. Seven different projects were submitted, resulting in the victory of Ferret, who adhered to theArt Nouveau movement, so much in vogue in France back then. Ferret was also to be the first manager of the proper gaming activities by an agreement signed on 5 November 1903. From 1913 the Casino had its own tram connection. From 1927 to 1934 the Casino was managed by Luigi De Santis who proved to be, among other things, a first-rate gamester for its knowledge of the game and the particularities of the world around it. In the 1930s,Pietro Mascagni,Luigi Pirandello and Francesco Pastonchi were regular clients of the Casino. De Santis invited Marta Abba to Sanremo and offered her the Compagnia Stabile (Theatre Company) of which Pirandello was to be its Artistic Director. It also granted funds to Pastonchi for the organisation and setting up of the Literary Mondays. The Sanremo Casino closed its doors on 10 June 1940. Still, undamaged by the war and two German and allied occupations, the Casino resumed its activities seven months after the end ofWorld War II. From its first edition in 1951 until 1976, the Sanremo Casino was home of theSanremo Music Festival.
Steel, once a major industry during the booming 1950s and 1960s, phased out after the late 1980s crisis, as Italy moved away from the heavy industry to pursue more technologically advanced and less polluting production. So the Ligurian industry has turned towards a widely diversified range of high-quality and high-tech products (food, shipbuilding, electrical engineering and electronics, petrochemicals, aerospace etc.). Nonetheless, the region still maintains a flourishing shipbuilding sector (yacht construction and maintenance, cruise liner building, military shipyards).[32]In the services sector, the gross value-added per worker in Liguria is 4% above the national average. This is due to the increasing diffusion of modern technologies, particularly in commerce and tourism.
TheGross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 49.9 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 2.8% of Italy's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 32,000 euros or 106% of the EU27 average in the same year.[33]
The unemployment rate stood at 8.3% in 2020 and was slightly lower than the national average.[34]
The following is a list of DOCs in the Liguria region along with the grapes that may be included in the blend under varying percentages that are regulated under the DOC label.[36]
Liguria has many small and picturesque villages, 20 of them have been selected byI Borghi più belli d'Italia (English:The most beautiful Villages of Italy),[37] a non-profit private association of small Italian towns of strong historical and artistic interest,[38] that was founded on the initiative of the Tourism Council of the National Association of Italian Municipalities.[39] These villages are:[40]
The Regional Government is presided by the Governor, who is elected for a five-year term, and is composed of the President and the Ministers, who are currently 11, including a vice president.[41]
The Regional Council has 40 members and is elected for a five-year term, but, if the President suffers a vote of no confidence, resigns or dies, under thesimul stabunt vel simul cadent clause (introduced in 1999), also the council will be dissolved and there will be a fresh election.
At both national and local level, Liguria is considered a swing region, where no one of the two political blocs is dominant, with the two eastern provinces leaning left, and the two western provinces right.
Liguria is one of 20 regions (administrative divisions) of Italy.
Seafood is a major staple ofMediterranean cuisine, the Ligurian variety being no exception, as the sea has been part of the region's culture since its beginning.Ciuppin soup is made from fish leftovers and stale bread, flavoured with white wine, onion, and garlic.[43]
Vegetables, especially beans, are important in Ligurian cooking.Mesciua soup is made from beans, olive oil andfarro (old kinds of wheat includingemmer).[43] The Badalucco, conio and pigna beans are aSlow Food Presidium.[44]
Ligurian pasta includestrenette andtrofie, and the fresh pasta pockets calledpansòuti.[43]
TheMilan–San Remo (inItalianMilano-Sanremo), also called "The Spring classic" or "La Classicissima", is an annualroad cycling race betweenMilan andSanremo, inNorthwest Italy. With a distance of 298 km (~185.2 miles) it is the longest professional one-day race in modern cycling. It is the first majorclassic race of the season, usually held on the third Saturday of March. The first edition was held in1907.[45] It is traditionally the first of the fiveMonuments of the season, considered to be one of the most prestigious one-day events in cycling.
TheRallye Sanremo is arally competition held inSanremo,Italy. Except for the 1995 event, the event was part of theFIAWorld Rally Championship schedule from1973 to the2003. It was a round of theIntercontinental Rally Challenge and is currently a round of theItalian national rally championship. The first "Rallye Internazionale di Sanremo" was held in 1928. The rally name'sFrench word "rallye", as opposed toItalian "rally", was inspired byRallye Automobile Monte Carlo. After another successful rally in 1929, the event was given to new organisers who decided to set up a street race through the town of Sanremo instead. The first one, 1° Circuito Automobilistico Sanremo, was held in 1937 and won byAchille Varzi. Rallye Sanremo was restarted in 1961 as Rallye dei Fiori ("Rally of the Flowers") and has been held every year since.[46]
A good motorways network (376 km (234 mi) in 2000) makes communications with the border regions relatively easy. The main motorway is located along the coastline, connecting the main ports of Nice (in France), Savona, Genoa and La Spezia. The number of passenger cars per 1000 inhabitants (524 in 2001) is below the national average (584).In average, about 17 million tonnes of cargo are shipped from the main ports of the region and about 57 million tonnes enter the region.[32] ThePort of Genoa, with a trade volume of 58.6 million tonnes[49] is the first port of Italy,[50] the second in terms oftwenty-foot equivalent units after the port oftransshipment ofGioia Tauro, with a trade volume of 1.86 million TEUs.[49] The main destinations for the cargo-passenger traffic are Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Barcelona and Canary Islands.
Tenda line is a cross-border railway line in the Alpine regions of France and Italy, connecting theMaritime andLigurian Alps. The line includes an 8-kilometre (5.0 mi) tunnel under theCol de Tende mountain pass. The line connectsCuneo andVentimiglia, both stations inItaly, but it passes through territory now belonging toFrance. This historical peculiarity is due to the fact that at the time of its design and construction, the route was located entirely within theKingdom of Sardinia.
Genova–Casella railway is a railway in Liguria that connects the city ofGenoa toCasella, a village in the mountains inland from the city. It operates nine trains per day and it is used for both commuting and tourist purposes. It crosses three valleys.
Port of Genoa is one of the most importantseaports inItaly. With a trade volume of 51.6 million tonnes, it is the busiest port of Italy after theport of Trieste by cargo tonnage.[51] There are two major lighthouses: the historicalLanterna, 76 metres (249 feet) tall, and the smalllighthouse of Punta Vagno, at the eastern entrance of the port.[52]
Port of Savona is a port inSavona. It is the fourth cruise port by number of passengers in Italy, with 1,300,000 people in 2013. Adjacent to the historic centre of Savona, the port of Savona has been active from theMiddle Ages and has always been crucial for the economy of the regional capital and its hinterland. A major terminal for ferries, there are ferry links toCorsica andSardinia.
Port of La Spezia is a port inLa Spezia. The port of La Spezia is one of the largest commercial ports in theLigurian Sea, and is located in the northernmost part of the Gulf of La Spezia. Its development dates from the late nineteenth century and has since grown to become one of the main ports of the Mediterranean Sea, specializing in container handling in particular.
Genoa Cristoforo Colombo Airport—commonly Genoa-Sestri Ponente Airport, afterthe city district where it is located—is aninternational airport built on an artificial peninsula, 4 NM (7.4 km; 4.6 mi) west of Genoa, Italy. The airport began construction in 1954 and opened in 1962, at a cost of 12.8 billionlira. Building an offshore airport was not a strange or unique solution only forGenoa. Among the most conspicuous examples are other airports inNice,Venice,Gibraltar, orHong Kong. The current terminal building was opened in 1986. It is the most important airport in Liguria and it serves the city andPort of Genoa, as well as a considerable population in SouthernPiedmont (Asti andAlessandria Provinces, southern areas ofCuneo Province).
Riviera Airport, former known as Villanova d'Albenga Airport, is on theItalian Riviera betweenSavona andImperia, approximately 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) west of the town ofAlbenga, in the community ofVillanova d’Albenga. Riviera Airport is mainly used forgeneral aviation in theNorthern Mediterranean, with international travel and transport facilitated by the presence of Italian Customs.[53] The airport is also used by the Italian aeroplane manufacturerPiaggio Aerospace. Riviera Airport is well connected to all financial and tourist centres on the Italian and French Riviera by means of highway A10 and theVia Aurelia (SS1). WhileMonte-Carlo is less than an hour's travel by car, a helicopter company based at the airport can connect passengers from the runway directly to the Principality ofMonaco in less than 20 minutes.[54] The airport opened in 1922.
^The objects found during the works for the underground had been exposed in the exhibitionArcheologia Metropolitana. Piazza Brignole e Acquasola, held at the Ligurian Archeology Museum (30 November 2009 - 14 February 2010) ([1]Archived December 30, 2013, at theWayback Machine)
^Melli, Piera (2007).Genova preromana. Città portuale del Mediterraneo tra il VII e il III secolo a.C. (in Italian). Frilli.ISBN978-8875633363.
^Marco Milanese,Scavi nell'oppidum preromano di Genova, L'Erma di Bretschneider, Roma 1987on-line in GoogleBooks; Piera Melli,Una città portuale del Mediterraneo tra il VII e il III secolo a.C., Genova, Fratelli Frilli ed., 2007.
^Praga, Corinna; Laura Monac (1992).Una Giornata nella Città [A Day in the City] (in Italian). Genoa: Sagep Editrice. p. 14.
^Preste, Alfredo; Alessandro Torti; Remo Viazzi (1997). "Casa di Colombo".Sei itinerari in Portoria [Six itineraries in Portoria](PDF) (in Italian). Genova: Grafiche Frassicomo.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
.jpg)
.jpg)
