The name of Cilicia (Κιλικία) was derived from theAkkadian toponymḪilakku (𒆳𒄭𒋃𒆪[4]), which was the name used by theNeo-Assyrian Empire to designate the western part of what would become Cilicia.[5][6]
Cilicia is located on the southern coast of Anatolia, and it historically extended from Coracesium or the river Melas in the west to the Amanis mountains in the east, while to the north it was bounded by the Taurus Mountains, which are passable in very few places, such as the Cilician Gates.[5]
Cilicia consisted of two main contrasting regions:[6]
to the west was a mountainous region characterised by rough terrain, corresponding to the Neo-Assyrian period territory ofḪilakku and the Graeco-Roman region of Rough Cilicia;
to the east was a fertile region defined by a smooth terrain, corresponding to the Neo-Assyrian period territory ofḪiyawa and the Graeco-Roman region of Plain Cilicia.
The western mountainous part of Cilicia was called Rugged Cilicia or Rough Cilicia (Ancient Greek:Κιλικία Τραχεῖα,romanized: Kilikía Trakheîa;Latin:Cilicia Aspera), while the eastern region was dominated by the alluvial plain of the riversCydnus,Sarus, andPyramus, and was therefore known as Plain Cilicia or Flat Cilicia (Ancient Greek:Κιλικία Πεδιάς,romanized: Kilikía Pediás;Latin:Cilicia Campestris).[5]
Rough Cilicia (Ancient Greek:Κιλικία Τραχεῖα,romanized: Kilikía Trakheîa;Latin:Cilicia Aspera;Neo-Assyrian Akkadian:𒆳𒄭𒋃𒆪,romanized: Ḫilakku;[4]Neo-Babylonian Akkadian:𒆳𒉿𒊑𒅔𒁺,romanized: Pirindu[7])[8][9][10] is a rugged mountain district[11] formed by the spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered harbours,[12] features which, in classical times, made the coast a string of havens forpirates[12][13] and, in the Middle Ages, outposts forGenoese andVenetian traders. The district is watered by theCalycadnus[14] and was covered in ancient times by forests that supplied timber toPhoenicia andEgypt. Cilicia lacked large cities.[15]
The plain is watered by the three great rivers, the Cydnus (Tarsus ÇayBerdan River), the Sarus (Seyhan), and the Pyramus (Ceyhan River), each of which brings down much silt from the deforested interior and which fed extensive wetlands. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Through the rich plain of Issus ran the great highway that linked east and west, on which stood the cities ofTarsus (Tarsa) on the Cydnus,Adana (Adaniya) on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the Pyramus.[15]
The climate of Cilicia shows significant differences between the mountains and the lower plains. At the lower plains, the climate reflects a typicalMediterranean style; summers are hot[23] while winters are mild, making the land, particularly, the eastern plains, fertile.[24] In the coldest month (January), the average temperature is 9 °C, and in the warmest month (August), the average temperature is 28 °C. The mountains of Cilicia have an inland climate with snowy winters. The average annual precipitation in the region is 647 mm and the average number of rainy days in a year is 76.Mersin and surrounding areas have the highest average temperature in Cilicia. Mersin also has high annual precipitation (1096 mm) and 85 rainy days in a year.
The mountains of Cilicia are formed from ancient limestones,conglomerate, marlstone, and similar materials. The Taurus Mountains are composed of karstic limestone, while its soil is also limestone-derived, with pockets of volcanic soil.[25] The lower plain is the largestalluvial plain in Turkey.[citation needed] Expansion of limestone formations and fourth-era alluvials brought by the riversSeyhan andCeyhan formed the plains of the region over the course of time.
Akyatan, Akyayan, Salt Lake, Seven lakes at Aladağ, and Karstik Dipsiz lake nearKaraisalı are the lakes of the region. The reservoirs in the region are Seyhan, Çatalan, Yedigöze, Kozan and Mehmetli.
Ceyhan River emerges from the confluence of the Aksu and Hurman rivers and flows towards Cape Hürmüz at theGulf of İskenderun. It is 509 km long and it forms the Akyayan, Akyatan, and Kakarat lakes before flowing into the Mediterranean.
Göksu river originates from theTaurus Mountains and flows into the Mediterranean 16 km southeast ofSilifke. It forms theGöksu Delta, including Akgöl Lake and Paradeniz Lagoon.
Cilicia was settled from the Neolithic period onwards.[26][27][page needed] Dating of the ancient settlements of the region from Neolithic to Bronze Age is as follows: Aceramic/Neolithic: 8th and 7th millennia BC; EarlyChalcolithic: 5800 BC; Middle Chalcolithic (correlated withHalaf andUbaid developments in the east): c. 5400–4500 BC; Late Chalcolithic: 4500 – c. 3400 BC; and Early Bronze Age IA: 3400–3000 BC; EBA IB: 3000–2700 BC; EBA II: 2700–2400 BC; EBA III A-B: 2400–2000 BC.[27]: 168–170
Probable captives from Cilicia, on the Nasiriyah stele ofNaram-Sin, circa 2200 BC.[28]
During the Bronze Age, the region which would become Cilicia was known asKizzuwatna, and silver from this region was exported toMiddle KingdomEgypt.[5]
There exists evidence that circa 1650 BC both Hittite kingsHattusili I andMursili I enjoyed the freedom of movement along thePyramus River (now the Ceyhan River in southernTurkey), proving they exerted strong control over Cilicia in their battles withSyria. After the death of Murshili around 1595 BC,Hurrians wrested control from the Hittites, and Cilicia was free for two centuries. The first king of free Cilicia,Išputahšu, son ofPariyawatri, was recorded as a "great king" in bothcuneiform andHittite hieroglyphs. Another record of Hittite origins, a treaty between Išputahšu andTelipinu, king of the Hittites, is recorded in both Hittite andAkkadian.[29]
In the next century, the Cilician kingPilliya finalized treaties with both KingZidanta II of the Hittites andIdrimi ofAlalakh, in which Idrimi mentions that he had assaulted several military targets throughout Eastern Cilicia.Niqmepa, who succeeded Idrimi as king of Alalakh, went so far as to ask for help from a Hurrian rival,Shaushtatar ofMitanni, to try and reduce Cilicia's power in the region. It was soon apparent, however, that increased Hittite power would soon prove Niqmepa's efforts to be futile, as the city ofKizzuwatna soon fell to the Hittites, threatening all of Cilicia. Soon after, KingSunassura was forced to acceptvassalization under the Hittites, becoming the last king of ancient Cilicia.[30] After the death ofMursili I, which led to a power struggle among rival claimants to the throne, eventually leading to the collapse of Hittite supremacy, Cilicia appeared to have regained its independence.[23]
In the 13th century BC a major population shift occurred as theSea Peoples overran Cilicia.[citation needed] The Hurrians that resided there deserted the area and moved northeast towards theTaurus Mountains, where they settled in the area ofCappadocia.[31]
During the late Iron Age, several local states emerged in Cilicia, which therefore became dominated by two main polities:[5][32]
in the east wasḪiyawa, corresponding to Plain Cilicia, and referred to asQue in Neo-Assyrian sources and asḪuwê inNeo-Babylonian sources;[33]
in the west, corresponding to Rough Cilicia, was the state referred to asḪilakku in Neo-Assyrian sources and asPirindu in Neo-Babylonian sources.[34]
During the 1st millennium BC, silver from Cilicia was exported to Assyria.[5]
During the 8th to 7th centuries BC, Greek traders and colonists established settlements on the Cilician coasts, such asNagidos andCelenderis founded bySamos,Soli founded byLindos; Greeks also established themselves in local settlements, such as atAnchiale andTarsus.[5]
Following the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, an independent state, called Cilicia (Ancient Greek:Κιλικία,romanized: Kilikía) by the ancient Greeks, was established in southeastern Anatolia in the 6th century BC under the rule of a native dynasty,[35] with its capital at the city ofTarsus.[5][6]
In the mid-6th century BC, the kingdom of Cilicia supported the founding king of thePersianAchaemenid Empire,Cyrus II, in his wars against Croesus of Lydia,[36] as a consequence of which Cilicia became a vassal of the Achaemenid empire as fromc. 542 BC,[6] and the Cilician rulers became part of the Achaemenid administration.[36]
Under early Achaemenid rule, Cilicia maintained a significant degree of autonomy[6] and the native rulers at Tarsus acted assatraps (governors) for the Achaemenid administration, with their authority extending until as far west asAspendus.[36][5]
Cilicia remained under efficient administration, and it would continue to provide troops for the Achaemenid wars in Anatolia, Egypt and Cyprus.[36]
In 401 BC, the Achaemenid king of kingsArtaxerxes II abolished the autonomy of Cilicia in reaction to the local Cilician rulerSyennesis III's support for the rebellion ofCyrus the Younger,[36] resulting in the kingdom of Cilicia being abolished and fully integrated into the Achaemenid empire as a normal province ruled by and appointed by the Achaemenid king of kings, which it would remain until theend of the Achaemenid Empire in 333 BC.[36][6][37]
Once the revolt of Cyrus the Younger had been suppressed, Cilicia was again used as an assembly point for Achaemenid forces in preparation for military action in the Aegean Sea during 396 to 395 BC, and against Cyprus in the 380s BC.[36]
During the 390s BC,Camisares was appointed as satrap of Cilicia. Camisares was himself succeeded by his son,Datames, who eventually became the satrap of both Cilicia and Cappadocia until his assassination inc. 362 BC.[36]
Alexander forded theHalys River in the summer of 333 BC, ending up on the border of southeasternPhrygia and Cilicia. He knew well the writings ofXenophon, and how the Cilician Gates had been "impassable if obstructed by the enemy". Alexander reasoned that by force alone he could frighten the defenders and break through, and he gathered his men to do so. In the cover of night, they attacked, startling the guards and sending them and their satrap into full flight, setting their crops aflame as they made forTarsus. This good fortune allowed Alexander and his army to pass unharmed through the Gates and into Cilicia.[38]
During Alexander III's invasion, a lesser officer namedArsames who had fled to Cilicia from the northwest to organise new resistance there defended it against the Macedonian forces.[36]
After Alexander's death it was long a battleground of the rivalHellenistic monarchs and kingdoms, and for a time fell underPtolemaic dominion (i.e., Egypt), but finally came to theSeleucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the eastern half.[15]
During the Hellenistic period, the Teucrid dynasty ruled at the city of Olba.[39]
Although no later Persian empire ever regained control of Cilicia, one Seleucid officer named Aribazus and attested as administrator of Cilicia in 246 BC was possibly of Persian descent.[36]
During theHellenistic era, numerous cities were established in Cilicia, which minted coins showing the badges (gods, animals, and objects) associated with each polis.[40]
The Seleucids, especiallyAntiochus IV, focused on Hellenising Cilicia by establishing or rebuilding several poleis, such as Seleucia on the Calycadnus, Antioch on the Cydnus (Tarsus), Seleucia on the Pyramus (Mopsuestia), Hierapolis (Castabala), andEpiphaneia.[41]
In the 3rd century BC, sporadic Ptolemaic presence was attested in Rugged Cilicia.[42]
With the weakening of the Seleucid kingdom in the late 2nd century BC,piracy spread in Cilicia.[42]
Between 78 and 74 BC,Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus conquered the population of Rugged Cilicia, which made a permanent Roman presence in Cilocia possible.[42][43]
In 69 BC,Lucullus returned the Cilician deportees to Tigranocerta back to their homeland.[42]
AfterPompey was given theimperium proconsulare maius, he was able to defeat the Cilician pirates in 67 BC, and he arranged for his defeated enemies to be settled in Pompeiopolis (formerly Soli) and other depopulated Cilician towns. This victory strengthened the Roman presence in Cilicia.[42][43]
Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates, who were subdued byPompey in 67 BC following aBattle of Korakesion (modernAlanya), and Tarsus was made the capital of theRoman province of Cilicia.Cilicia Pedias became Roman territory in 103 BC first conquered byMarcus Antonius Orator in his campaign against pirates, withSulla acting as its first governor, foiling an invasion ofMithridates, and the whole was organized byPompey, 64 BC, into a province which, for a short time, extended to and included part ofPhrygia.[15]
A Roman-period triumphal arch atAnazarbus, later converted into the city's south gate
In 51 BC, theParthian Empire was able to take advantage of the weakness of the Roman Republic to invade Cilicia (Parthian:𐭊𐭉𐭋𐭊𐭉𐭀).[36]
In 51 or 50 BC, theproconsulCicero successfully campaigned in Cilicia against the Eleutherokilikes in the Amanus Mountains, which further solidified the Roman presence in CIlicia.[42][43]
It was reorganized byJulius Caesar, 47 BC, and about 27 BC became part of the province Syria-Cilicia Phoenice. At first, the western district was left independent under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, underTarcondimotus I, was left in the east;[44][15] but these were finally united to the province byVespasian, AD 72.[45][15]Containing 47 known cities, it had been deemed important enough to be governed by aproconsul.[46]
After Julius Caesar's death, theprovincia of Cilicia was dissolved in 43 BC, and most of Rugged Cilicia was given toAmyntas of Galatia, then toArchelaus of Cappadocia. Plain Cilicia meanwhile was ruled by the kingdom ofTarcondimotus I as well as other smaller client-states of the Roman Republic or administered as part of Syria.[42][43]
Tarcondimotus I had supported the losing side ofboth Romancivil wars by offering naval support to Pompey andMark Antony, due to which his sonTarcondimotus II Philopator was deposed in 30 BC, although he was restored to power between 20 BC and 17 AD.[42]
Parts of Cilicia were given to Antiochus IV of Commagene by Caligula, who incorporated the rest of it into Syria.[42]
A province of Cilicia with Tarsus as capital was re-established in 72 AD byVespasian.[42][43]
In 259 or 260, the PersianSasanian king of kingsShapur I defeated the Roman EmperorValerian, whose army included Cilician soldiers. After Valerian's defeat, the Sasanian forces burnt and sacked several cities in Syria, Cilicia (Middle Persian:𐭪𐭫𐭪𐭩𐭠𐭩) and Cappadocia, and devastated large parts of Cilicia.[36][42]
Under Emperor Diocletian'sTetrarchy (c. 297), Cilicia was governed by aconsularis; with Isauria and the Syrian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Libyan provinces, formed theDiocesis Orientis[15] (in the late 4th century the African component was split off asDiocese of Egypt), part of thepretorian prefecture also calledOriens ('the East', also including the dioceses ofAsiana andPontica, both in Anatolia, andThraciae in the Balkans), the rich bulk of the easternRoman Empire. After the division of the Roman Empire, Cilicia became part of the eastern Roman Empire, theByzantine Empire. Cilicia was one of the most important regions of theclassical world and can be considered as the birthplace ofChristianity.[47][48]
Diocletian made Rugged Cilicia into a province namedIsauria, with its capital at Seleucia.[42]
Roman Cilicia exported the goats-hair cloth,Cilicium, which was used to make tents.[15] Tarsus was also the birthplace of the earlyChristian missionary and authorSt. Paul, likely writer of 13 of the 27 books included in theNew Testament.
In 400,Theodosius I divided Plain Cilicia into the provinces of Cilicia Prima, headquartered at Tarsus, and Cilicia Secunda, whose capital was Anazarbus.[51][43]
Cilicia remained prosperous, due to which several, largely ecclesiastical, construction works were undertaken there.[51]
From the middle of the 7th century, Cilicia became more and more close to the border between theByzantine Empire and theCaliphate, resulting in the depopulation of the region.[51]
In the 7th century Cilicia was invaded by the Muslim Arabs.[52] The area was for some time an embattled no-man's land. TheUmayyad Caliphate conquered Cilicia aroundc. 700.[51] Under theAbbasid Caliphate, Cilicia was resettled and transformed into a fortified frontier zone (thughur). Tarsus, re-built in 787/788, quickly became the largest settlement in the region and the Arabs' most important base in their raids across theTaurus Mountains into Byzantine-held Anatolia.
In medievalArabic Cilicia was known asAth-Thugur As-Shamiyya meaning "Levantine outskirts".
The Muslims held the country until it was reoccupied by the EmperorNicephorus II in 965.[15][51] During the Byzantine resettlement of Cilicia, many Armenians migrated to Cilicia, where they founded in 1071 thekingdom of Lesser Armenia.[51]
During the time of theFirst Crusade, the area was controlled by theArmenian Kingdom of Cilicia. TheSeljuk Turkish invasions of Armenia were followed by an exodus of Armenians migrating westward into the Byzantine Empire, and in 1080Ruben, a relative of the last king ofAni, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality which gradually expanded into theArmenian Kingdom of Cilicia. This Christian state, surrounded by Muslim states hostile to its existence, had a stormy history of about 300 years, giving valuable support to the Crusaders, and trading with the great commercial cities of Italy.[15]
It prospered for three centuries due to the vast network of fortifications which secured all the major roads as well as the three principal harbours atAyas,Koŕikos, andMopsuestia.[53] Through their complex alliances with the Crusader states, the Armenian barons and kings often invited Crusaders to maintain castles in and along the borders of the Kingdom, includingBagras,Trapessac,T‛il Hamtun,Harunia,Selefkia,Amouda, andSarvandikar.
Gosdantin (r. 1095 – c. 1100) assisted theCrusaders on their march toAntioch, and was created knight andmarquis.Thoros I (r. c. 1100 – 1129), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged successful wars against the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks.Levon II (Leo the Great (r. 1187–1219)), extended the kingdom beyondMount Taurus and established the capital atSis. He assisted the Crusaders, was crowned King by theArchbishop of Mainz, and married one of theLusignans of the CrusaderKingdom of Cyprus.[15]
Ethnic map of Cilicia and vicinity at the thirteenth century AD
Hetoum I (r. 1226–1270) made an alliance with theMongols,[15] sending his brotherSempad to the Mongol court in person.[54][55] The Mongols then assisted with the defence of Cilicia from theMamluks of Egypt, until the Mongols themselves converted to Islam.[15]
TheIlkhanate lost cohesion after the death ofAbu Sa'id (r. 1316–1335), and thus could not support the Armenian Kingdom in guarding Cilicia. Internal conflicts within the Armenian Kingdom and the devastation caused by theBlack Death that arrived in 1348, led nomadic Türkmens to turn their eyes towards unstable Cilicia. In 1352, Ramazan Beg led Turkmens settled south of Çaldağı and founded their first settlement,Camili. Later that year, Ramazan Beg visitedCairo and was licensed by the Sultan to establish the new frontierTurkmen Emirate in Cilicia.[56]
Yüreğir Türkmens lived as a small community for 7 years in southeast of Adana, and named their new land,Yüreğir.
WhenLevon V died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king asGosdantin IV; but he and his successors alienated the native Armenians by attempting to make them conform to theRoman Church, and by giving all posts of honour toLatins, until at last the kingdom, falling prey to internal dissensions, ceded Cilicia Pedias to theRamadanid-supportedMamluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1375.[15][51]
During the Ramadanid era, Cilicia was a buffer state between two Islamic powers.
In 1359, Mamluk Sultanate Army marched into Cilicia and took over Adana andTarsus, two major cities of the plain, leaving few castles to Armenians. In 1375, Mamluks gained the control of the remaining areas of Cilicia, thus ending the three centuries rule of Armenians.[citation needed] Cilicia Pedias became part of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1375.[15] Mamluk Sultanate authorized Ramazan Beg led Türkmen Emirate to administer Cilicia, but took direct control of the towns, Tarsus,Ayas,Sarvandikar,Sis at the four corners of Cilicia plain and appointed anAmir and a Garrison for each. Tarsus, the former capital of Cilicia, were settled by themoors that arrived from Egypt. Türkmen Emirate which began to be known as Ramadanids, set the city of Adana as their center of power, and many Türkmen families of Yüreğir origin moved to the city.
After the death of Ramazan Bey, his son Ibrahim Bey made alliance with theKaraman Emirate. Alaeddin Bey and Ibrahim Bey together tried to break the Mameluks' might in the province. After thisalliance a great Mameluk army moved in and began to plunder but Ibrahim Bey's army achieved a great victory against the Mameluks in Belen. Also in this battle Temur Bey, the general of the Mameluks, had been captured. Yilboga, the amir of Aleppo moved on to the Turkmens after this defeat and he conquered Misis Castle.
Ramadanids were the only emirate inAnatolia that were not a successor of theAnatolian Seljuk Sultanate. They are often misclassified as anAnatolian beylik, though they were an entity under Mamluks. The Ramadanids played an important role in 15th centuryOttoman-Mamluk relations, being abuffer state located in the Mamlukal-'Awasim frontier zone. Cilicia were one of the last regions of Anatolia to fall under Turkish rule, and were part of the Seljuqs for a short time, thus were not effected fromSunni tariqa expansionism of the 13th century. Yüreğir Turks moved to Cilicia in the late 14th century, and had a distinct culture that influenced from Bektashi traditions which accompaniedShamanic rituals withIslam. Living together and having cultural exchange with the large Armenian community, Yüreğir Turks flourished a laid back culture.
In 1516,Selim I incorporated the beylik into the Ottoman Empire after hisconquest of the Mamluk state. Thebeys of Ramadanids held the administration of the Ottomansanjak ofAdana in a hereditary manner until 1608, with the area serving as a vassal of the Ottomans.[57]
Ottomans ended the Ramadanid administration of Adana sanjak in 1608, ruling it directly from Constantinople then after. The autonomous sanjak was then split from theAleppo Eyalet and established as a new province under the name ofAdana Eyalet. A governor was appointed to administer the province. In late 1832,Eyalet of EgyptValiMuhammad Ali Pasha invadedSyria, and reached Cilicia. TheConvention of Kütahya that was signed on 14 May 1833, ceded Cilicia to thede facto independentEgypt.
Alawites brought to Cilicia from Syria to work at the flourishing agricultural lands. İbrahim Paşa, the son of Muhammed Ali Paşa, demolished the Adana Castle and the city walls in 1836. He built the canals for irrigation and transportation and also built water systems for the residential areas of the towns. Adana had the infrastructure it needed by the second half of the 19th century to become major center of Southeastern Anatolia.[58]
After theOriental crisis, the Convention of Alexandria that was signed on 27 November 1840, required the return of Cilicia to Ottoman sovereignty. TheAmerican Civil War that broke out in 1861 disturbed the cotton flow to Europe and directed European cotton traders to fertile Cilicia. The region became the centre of cotton trade and one of the most economically strong regions of the Empire within decades. In 1869, Adana Eyalet was re-established asAdana Vilayet, after the re-structuring in the Ottoman Administration.[59]Adana–Mersin railway line was opened in 1886, connecting Cilicia to international ports throughPort of Mersin.
A thriving regional economy, the doubling of Cilician Armenian population due to flee from theHamidian massacres, and the end of autocraticAbdulhamid rule with therevolution of 1908, empowered the Armenian community and envisioned an autonomous Cilicia. Enraged supporters of Abdulhamid that organized under Cemiyet-i Muhammediye amidst thecountercoup,[60] led to a series of anti-Armenian pogroms in 14–27 April 1909.[61] TheAdana massacre resulted in the deaths of roughly 25,000 Armenians, orphaned3500 children and caused heavy destruction of Christian neighbourhoods in the entireVilayet.[62]
The Cilicia section of theBerlin–Baghdad railway was opened in 1912, connecting the region to the Middle East. Over the course of theArmenian genocide, an Ottoman telegraph was received by the Governor to deport the more than 70,000 Armenians of the Adana Vilayet to Syria.[63] Armenians of Zeitun had organized a successful resistance against the Ottoman onslaught. In order to finally subjugate Zeitun, the Ottomans had to resort to treachery by forcing an Armenian delegation from Marash to ask theZeituntsis to put down their arms. Both the Armenian delegation, and later, the inhabitants of Zeitun, were left with no choice.[64]
Armistice of Mudros that was signed on 30 October 1918 to end theWorld War I, ceded the control of Cilicia to France. French Government sent four battalions of theArmenian Legion in December to take over and oversee the repatriation of more than 170,000 Armenians to Cilicia. Returning Armenians negotiated with France to establish an autonomousState of Cilicia. The Armenians formed theArmenian National Union which acted as an unofficial Cilician Armenian government composed of the four major political parties and three Armenian religious denominations.[65]Mihran Damadian, the chief negotiator for Armenians, signed the provisionalConstitution of Cilicia in 1919 to bring new order to the region.[66]
The French forces were spread too thinly in the region and, as they came under withering attacks by Muslim elements both opposed andloyal toMustafa Kemal Pasha, eventually reversed their policies in the region. A truce arranged on 28 May between the French and the Kemalists, led to the retreat of the French forces south of the Mersin-Osmaniye railroad.
Cilicie palais de gouvernement
With the changing political environment and interests, the French further reversed their policy: The repatriation was halted, and the French ultimately abandoned all pretensions to Cilicia, which they had originally hoped to attach to theirmandate over Syria.[67]Cilicia Peace Treaty was signed on 9 March 1921 between France andTurkish Grand National Assembly. The treaty did not achieve the intended goals and was replaced with theTreaty of Ankara that was signed on 20 October 1921. Based on the terms of the agreement, France recognized the end of theCilicia War, and French troops together with the remaining Armenian volunteers withdrew from the region in early January 1922.[68]
The region become part of theRepublic of Turkey in 1921 with the signing of the Treaty of Ankara. On 15 April 1923, just before the signing of theTreaty of Lausanne, the Turkish government enacted the "Law of Abandoned Properties" which confiscated properties of Armenians and Greeks who were not present on their property. Cilicia were one of the regions with the most confiscated property, thusmuhacirs (en: immigrants) from Balkans andCrete were relocated in the old Armenian and Greek neighbourhoods and villages of the region. All types of properties, lands, houses and workshops were distributed to them. Also during this period, there was a property rush of Muslims fromKayseri andDarende to Cilicia who were granted the ownership of large farms, factories, stores and mansions. Within a decade, Cilicia had a sharp change demographically, socially and economically and lost its diversity by turning into solely Muslim/Turkish.[66]
Remaining Jews and Christians were hit by the heavy burden of theWealth Tax in 1942, which caused them to leave Cilicia, selling their properties for peanuts to families likeSabancı, who built their wealth on owning confiscated or cheaply purchased properties.[citation needed] Forcible change in means of production led to abuse of wealth and harsh treatment of labor later in the 20th century, as the new possessors did not have the necessary management attributes that the previous owners had for centuries.[citation needed]
In another Greek myth, the name of Cilicia was derived from a people named theKilikes (Κίλικες), who were Greeks who originally lived in theTroad, and who settled the coastland of Cilicia under the leadership of the seerMopsus.[71][6] The Karatepe Luwian-Phoenicianbilingual inscription mentions the House of Mopsus (Hieroglyphic Luwian:𔑾𔗧𔗔𔗔,romanized: Muksas;Phoenician:𐤌𐤐𐤔,romanized: MPŠ) as the reigning dynasty of the kingdom of Ḫiyawa.[42]
The inhabitants of Ancient Cilicia wereLuwians who had settled in this region in the 2nd millennium BC, and Cilicia itself had become an important centre of Luwian settlement in Anatolia in the aftermath of theLate Bronze Age collapse.[72]
This Luwian population persisted in Cilicia in the 1st millennium BC until the later Hellenistic and Roman periods, hence why the onomastics of this region, especially in its western part (Rough Cilicia), were Luwian in character, implying that it was inhabited by a large number of Luwian speakers until the early 1st millennium AD.[72]
Like in the rest of the western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, Persians had moved in Cilicia, and archaeological evidence such as reliefs from Silifke, Adana and Korykos suggest that a Persian nobility as well as a Persianised nobility existed in Cilicia during the Achaemenid period.[36]
The population of the eastern part of ancient Cilicia was urbanised and participated in commercial and industrial activities, while the inhabitants of its western regions were tribally organised and led simpler lifestyles.[6]
Temple estates had existed in Cilicia since the pre-Achaemenid period, although the best documentation regarding them is from the Hellenestic period. Known temple estates include the temple of Zeus atOlbē and the temple of Artemis Perasia atKastabala.[36]
Like the other western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, the satrap of Cilicia owned an estate with a palace at Tarsus, which was a large and thriving city during the Achaemenid period. Subordinate to the satrap in the local administration were lower rank officials, with some of them being landed aristocrats owning estates and villages, and others being priests in the sanctuaries of Cilicia who administered the temple estates, as well as other even lesser officials.[36]
The temple estates persisted through the Achaemenid period, implying that their existence was not perceived as detrimental to the authority of the satrap of Cilicia.[36]
The duties of the satrap including maintaining peace within his satrapy to ensure agriculture could be conducted and tribute could be produced, as well as to keep the locations at higher altitudes and the mountain passes under control loyal to the Achaemenid crown, to which it contributed 360 horses and 140talents of silver for defence.[36]
Cilicia also provided troops to the land and maritime military forces of the Achaemenid Empire, and the satrapy itself acted as an assembly point for them.[36]
Little is known of the large cities in the Achaemenid period, although Tarsus and Soli are known to have minted coins which were used in the Achaemenid military campaigns against Cyprus and Egypt.[36]
During the Achaemenid period, the administration of Cilicia was stable and efficient, thanks to which it was agriculturally very productive and was capable of holding large military concentrations. The fact that the king of kings Darius I expected 500 talents of silver as tribute from Cilicia attests that its administration was of the necessary competence to generate a revenue that was more than trivial.[36]
In the Hellenistic period, the Cilician temple estates adopted Greek culture under the influence of Seleucid administration:[36]
the high priests of Zeus at Olbe were able to expand their authority after the fall of the Achaemend Empire, and they became culturally Hellenised, with their dynasts shifting their names from Tarkuaris (Ταρκυαρις, fromLuwianTarḫuwarris[74]) to Teukros (Τευκρος);
the chief priest of the temple of Artemis Perasia at Castabala was also a dynast who became culturally Hellenised.
Modern Cilicia is split into four administrative provinces:Mersin,Adana,Osmaniye andHatay. Each province is governed by the Central Government inAnkara through an appointed Provincial governor. Provinces are then divided into districts governed by the District Governors who are under the provincial governors.
Reflecting the diversity of Cilicia in the Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid periods, various deities of different origins have been attested there in antiquity:[36]
Cilicia is heavily populated due to its abundant resources, climate and plain geography. The population of Cilicia as of 31 December 2022 is 6,435,986.[1]
Hatay is the most rural province of Cilicia and also Hatay is the only province that the rural population is rising and the urban population is declining. The major reason is the mountainous geography of Hatay.
Adana Province is the most urbanized province, with most of the population centred in the city ofAdana.Mersin Province has a larger rural population thanAdana Province, owing to its long and narrow stretch of flat land in between theTaurus Mountains and the Mediterranean.
Cilicia is well known for the vast fertile land and highly productive agriculture. The region is also industrialized;Tarsus,Adana andCeyhan host numerous plants.Mersin andİskenderun seaports provide transportation of goods manufactured in Central, South and Southeast Anatolia.Ceyhan hosts oil, natural gas terminals as well as refineries and shipbuilders.
The Cilicia plain has some of the most fertile soil in the world in which 3 harvests can be taken each year. The region has the second richest flora in the world and it is the producer of all agricultural products of Turkey except hazelnut and tobacco. Cilicia leads Turkey in soy, peanuts and corn harvest and is a major producer of fruits and vegetables. Half of Turkey's citrus export is from Cilicia.Anamur is the only sub-tropical area of Turkey where bananas, mango, kiwi and other sub-tropical produce can be harvested.
Cilicia is the second largest honey producer in Turkey after theMuğla–Aydın region.[76]Samandağ,Yumurtalık,Karataş andBozyazı are some of the towns in the region where fishing is the major source of income. Gray mullet, red mullet, sea bass, lagos, calamari and gilt-head bream are some of the most popular fish in the region. There areaquaculture farms in Akyatan, Akyağan,Yumurtalık lakes and at Seyhan Reservoir. While not as common as other forms of agriculture, dairy and livestock are also produced throughout the region.
Cilicia is one of the first industrialized regions of Turkey. With the improvements in agriculture and the spike of agricultural yield, agriculture-based industries are built in large numbers. Today, the manufacturing industry is mainly concentrated aroundTarsus,Adana andCeyhan. Textile, leather tanning and food processing plants are plentiful. İsdemir is a large steel plant located inİskenderun.
Thepetrochemical industry is rapidly developing in the region with the investments around the Ceyhan Oil Terminal. Petroleum refineries are being built in the area.Ceyhan is also expected to host the shipbuilding industry.
Adana is the commercial centre of the region where many of the public and private institutions have their regional offices.Mersin andAntakya are also home to regional offices of public institutions. Many industry fairs and congresses are held in the region at venues such as the TÜYAP Congress and Exhibition Centre inAdana and the Mersin Congress Centre.
Mersin Seaport is the third largest seaport in Turkey, afterIstanbul andİzmir. There are 45 piers in the port. The total area of the port is 785 square kilometres (194,000 acres), and the capacity is 6,000 ships per year.
İskenderun Seaport is used mostly for transfers to Middle East and Southeastern Turkey.[77]
Ceyhan Oil Terminal is a marine transport terminal for theBaku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (the "BTC"), theKirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline, the plannedSamsun-Ceyhan and the Ceyhan-Red Sea pipelines. Ceyhan will also be a natural gas terminal for a planned pipeline to be constructed parallel to the Kirkuk-Ceyhan oil pipeline, and for a planned extension of theBlue Stream Gas Pipeline from Samsun to Ceyhan.
Dörtyol Oil Terminal is a marine transport terminal for Batman-Dörtyol oil pipeline which started operating in 1967 to marketBatman oil. The pipeline is 511 km long and has an annual capacity of 3.5 million tons.[78]
Yemiskumu Beach (Ayaş, Erdemli district of Mersin Province)
While the region has a long coastline, international tourism is not at the level of the neighbouringAntalya Province. There are a small number of hotels betweenErdemli andAnamur that attracts tourists. Cilicia tourism is mostly cottage tourism serving the Cilicia locals as well as residents ofKayseri,Gaziantep and surrounding areas. BetweenSilifke andMersin, high-rise and low-rise cottages line the coast, leaving almost no vacant land. The coastline fromMersin toKarataş is mostly farmland. This area is zoned for resort tourism and is expected to have a rapid development within the next 20 years.Karataş andYumurtalık coasts are home to cottages with a bird conservatory between the two areas. Arsuz is a seaside resort that is mostly frequented byAntakya andİskenderun residents.
Plateaus on the Taurus mountains are cooler escapes for the locals who wants to chill out from hot and humid summers of the lower plains. Gözne andÇamlıyayla (Namrun) inMersin Province, Tekir, Bürücek and Kızıldağ inAdana Province,Zorkun inOsmaniye Province and Soğukoluk inHatay Province are the popular high plain resorts of Cilicia which are often crowded in summer. There are a few hotels and camping sites in the Tekir plateau.
The region is a popular destination forthermal springs. Hamamat Thermal Spring, located on midway fromKırıkhan toReyhanlı, has a very high sulphur ratio, making it the second in the world after a thermal spring in India.[79] It is the largest spa in the region and attracts manySyrians due to proximity. Haruniye Thermal Spring is located on the banks of theCeyhan River nearDüziçi town and has a serene environment. Thermal springs are a hot spot for people with rheumatism.[80] Kurttepe, Alihocalı and Ilıcamineral springs, all located inAdana Province, are popular for toxic cleansing. Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort & Spa inAntakya is one of Turkey's top resorts for revitalization.
Lying at a crossroads of three major religions, namelyJudaism,Christianity andIslam, the region is home to numerous landmarks that are important for people of faith. Tarsus is the birthplace ofPaul the Apostle, who returned to the city after his conversion. The city was a stronghold of Christians after his death. Ashab-ı Kehf cavern, one of the locations claimed to be the resting place of the legendarySeven Sleepers, holy to Christians and Muslims, is located north of Tarsus.
Kizkalesi (Maiden Castle), a fort on a small island across Kızkalesi township, was built during the early 12th century by Armenian kings of theRubeniyan dynasty to defend the city of Korykos (present-day Kızkalesi).
Heaven & Hell, situated on a large hill north of Narlıkuyu, consists of thegrabens resulting from assoil offurrings[clarification needed] for thousands of years. The natural phenomenon of the grabens is named 'Hell & Heaven' because of the exotic effects on people. Visitors can access the cave of the mythological giantTyphon.[85][better source needed]
The ancient Roman town ofSoloi-Pompeiopolis, near the city ofMersin.
Yılanlı Kale (Castle of Serpents), an 11th-century Crusader castle built on a historical road connecting the Taurus mountains with the city of Antakya. The castle has 8 round towers, a military guardhouse and a church. It is located 5 km. west ofCeyhan.[86]
Anazarbus Castle, built in the 3rd century, served as the centre of the ancient metropolis of Anavarza. The city was built on a hill and had strategic importance, controlling the Cilician plain. The main castle and the city walls represent remains of the city. The city wall is 1500 m. long and 8-10m. high, with 4 entrances to the city. The castle is located 80 km. northeast ofAdana.
Şar (Comona), an ancient city located in northernmost Cilicia, some 200 km. north ofAdana, nearTufanbeyli. It was an historical centre of theHittites. Remaining structures today include the amphitheatre built during theRoman period, ruins of a church from theByzantine era and Hittite rock-works.[87]
TheChurch of St. Peter inAntakya was a cave on the slopes of Habibi Neccar mountain converted into a church. The church is known as the first Christians' traditional meeting place.Pope Paul VI declared the church a"Place of Pilgrimage" for Christians in 1963, and since then a special ceremony takes place on29 June each year.
St. Simeon Monastery, a 6th-century giant structure built on a desolate hill 18 km south of Antakya. The most striking features of this monastery are its cisterns, its storage compartment, and the walls. It is believed thatSt. Simeon resided here atop a 20-meter stone column for 45 years.
Akyatan Lagoon is a large wildlife refuge which acts as a stopover for migratory birds voyaging from Africa to Europe. The wildlife refuge has a 14,700 ha (36,000-acre) area made up of forests, lagoon, marsh, sandy and reedy lands. Akyatan lake is a natural wonder with endemic plants and endangered bird species living in it together with other species of plants and animals. 250 species of birds are observed during a study in 1990. The conservation area is located 30 km south ofAdana, near Tuzla.[88]
Yumurtalık Nature Reserve covers an area of 16,430 hectares within the Seyhan-Ceyhan delta, with its lakes, lagoons and wide collection of plant and animal species. The area is an important location for many species of migrating birds, the number gets higher during the winters when the lakes become a shelter when other lakes further north freeze.[89]
Aladağlar National Park, located north ofAdana, is a huge park of around 55,000 hectares, the summit of Demirkazik at 3756 m is the highest point in the middle Taurus mountain range. There is a huge range of flora and fauna, and visitors may fish in the streams full of trout. Wildlife includes wild goats, bears, lynx and sable. The most common species of plant life is black pine and cluster pine trees, with some cedar dotted between, and fir trees in the northern areas with higher humidity. The Alpine region, from the upper borders of the forest, has pastures with rocky areas and little variety of plant life because of the high altitude and slope.[90]
Tekköz-Kengerlidüz Nature Reserve, located 30 km north ofDörtyol, is known for having an ecosystem different from the Mediterranean. The main species of trees around Kengerliduz are beech, oak and fir, and around Tekkoz are hornbeam, ash, beach, black pine and silver birch. The main animal species in the area are wild goat, roe deer, bear, hyena, wild cat, wagtail, wolf, jackal and fox.[91]
Habibi Neccar Dağı Nature Reserve is famous for its cultural as well as natural value, especially for St Pierre Church, which was carved into the rocks. The Charon monument, 200 m north of the church, is huge sculpture of Haron, known as Boatman of Hell in mythology, carved into the rocks. The main species of tree are cluster pine, oaks and sandalwood. The mountain is also home to foxes, rabbits, partridges and stock doves. Nature reserve is 10 km east ofAntakya and can be accessible by public transport.[92]
There are numerous private primary and high schools besides the state schools in the region. Most popular high school in the region is Tarsus American College, founded as a missionary school in 1888 to serve Armenian community and then became a secular school in 1923. Adana Anatolian High School and Adana Science High School most important high schools in the Cilicia. In other cities, Anatolian High School and School for Science are the most popular high schools of the city.
The region is home to five state and two foundation universities.
Çukurova University is a state university founded in 1973 with the union of the faculties of Agriculture and Medicine.. Main campus is in the city ofAdana, and the College of Tourism Administration is inKarataş. There is an engineering faculty inCeyhan, and vocational schools inKozan,Karaisalı,Pozantı andYumurtalık. The university is one of the well-developed universities of Turkey with many cultural, social and athletic facilities, currently enrolls 40,000 students.[93]
Mersin University is a state university founded in 1992, and currently serving with 11 faculties, 6 colleges and 9 vocational schools. The university employs more than 2100 academicians and enrolls 26,980 students.[94] Main campus is in the city ofMersin. InTarsus, there is Faculty of Technical Education and Applied Technology and Management College. InSilifke andErdemli, university has colleges and vocational schools. There are also vocational schools inAnamur,Aydıncık,Gülnar, andMut.
Mustafa Kemal University is a state university located inHatay Province. University was founded in 1992, currently has 9 faculties, 4 colleges and 7 vocational schools. Main campus is inAntakya and Faculty of Engineering is inİskenderun. The university employs 708 academicians and 14,439 students as of 2007.[95]
Korkut Ata University was founded in 2007 as a state university with the union of colleges and vocational schools inOsmaniye Province and began enrollment in 2009. The university has 3 faculties and a vocational school at the main campus in the city ofOsmaniye and vocational schools inKadirli,Bahçe,Düziçi andErzin. University employs 107 academicians and enrolled 4000 students in 2009.[96]
Adana Science and Technology University is a recently founded state university that is planned to have ten faculties, two institutions and a college. It will accommodate 1,700 academic, 470 administrative staff, and it is expected to enroll students by 2012.[97]
Çağ University is a not-for-profit tuition based university founded in 1997. It is located on midway fromAdana toTarsus. University holds around 2500 students, most of them commuting from Adana, Tarsus and Mersin.[98]
Toros University is a not-for-profit tuition based university located inMersin. The university started enrolling students in 2010.[99]
Cilicia has a well-developed transportation system with two airports, two major seaports, motorways and railway lines on the historical route connecting Europe to Middle East.
Another under construction airport isÇukurova Regional Airport, According to the newspaperHürriyet, the project's cost will be 357 million Euro. When finished, it will serve to 15 million people, and the capacity will be doubled in the future.
Parallel to the highway network in Cilicia, there is an extensive railway network. Adana-Mersin train runs as a commuter train between Mersin, Tarsus and Adana. There are also regional trains from Adana to Ceyhan, Osmaniye and İskenderun.
Cilicia was one of the most important regions for theOttoman Armenians because it managed very well to preserve Armenian character throughout the years. In fact, the Cilician highlands were densely populated by Armenians in small but prosperous towns and villages such asHadjin andZeitun, two mountainous areas where autonomy was maintained until the 19th century.[101][102] In ports and cities of the Adana plain, commerce and industry were almost entirely in the hands of the Armenians and they remained so thanks to a constant influx of Armenians from the highlands. Their population was continuously increasing in numbers in Cilicia in contrast to other parts of the Ottoman Empire, where it was, since 1878, decreasing due to repression.
^Sayce, A. H. (October 1922) "The Decipherment of the Hittite Hieroglyphic Texts"The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 4: pp. 537–572, page 554
^Edwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006)The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380–1000 B.C. (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England,page 422Archived 30 October 2022 at theWayback Machine,ISBN0-521-08691-4
^Toynbee, Arnold Joseph and Myers, Edward DeLos (1961)A Study of History, Volume 7 Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, page 668,OCLC6561573
^In general see: Bean, George Ewart and Mitford, Terence Bruce (1970)Journeys in Rough Cilicia, 1964–1968 (Volume 102 of Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse.Denkschriften) Böhlau in Komm., Vienna,ISBN3-205-04279-4
^abRife, Joseph L. (2002) "Officials of the Roman Provinces in Xenophon's "Ephesiaca""Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 138: pp. 93–108 , page 96
^Xenophon,Anabasis 1.2.22, noted the sesame and millet.
^Remarked by Robin Lane Fox,Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:73 and following pages
^The modern plain has added cotton fields and orange groves.
^1 Kings 10:28 – "Solomon's horses were imported from Egypt and from Cilicia, where the king's merchants purchased them", noted by Fox 2008:75 note 15.
^abVandekerckhove, Dweezil (2019).Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia: The Armenian Contribution to Military Architecture in the Middle Ages. Leiden: BRILL. p. 15.ISBN978-90-04-41741-0.
^Mitchell, S. Augustus (1860).An Ancient Geography, Classical and Sacred. Philadelphia, PA: E.H. Butler & Co. p. 36.
^Vandekerckhove, Dweezil (2019).Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia: The Armenian Contribution to Military Architecture in the Middle Ages. Leiden: BRILL. p. 17.ISBN978-90-04-41741-0.
^Akpinar, Ezgi (September 2004)."The Natural Landscape – Hydrology"(PDF).Hellenistic & Roman Settlement Patterns in the Plain of Issus & the Amanus Range (Master of Arts Thesis). Ankara:Bilkent University. p. 12. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 26 September 2020. Retrieved19 July 2019.
^abMellink, M.J. 1991. Anatolian Contacts with Chalcolithic Cyprus.
^McKeon, John F. X. (1970). "An Akkadian Victory Stele".Boston Museum Bulletin.68 (354): 239.ISSN0006-7997.JSTOR4171539.
^Hallo, William W. (1971).The Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 111–112.
^Edwards, Robert W., "Architecture: Cilician" (2016).The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology, ed., Paul Corby Finney. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 106–108.ISBN978-0-8028-9016-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Edwards, Robert W. (1987).The Fortifications of Armenian Cilicia: Dumbarton Oaks Studies XXIII. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 3–288.ISBN0-88402-163-7.
^Peter Jackson,Mongols and the West, p. 74. "King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbors and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission."
^Angus Donal Stewart, "Logic of Conquest", p. 8. "The Armenian king saw an alliance with the Mongols – or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them – as the best course of action."
^Har-El, Shai (1995).Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485–91. Leiden, New York, Köln: E.J. Brill.ISBN978-9004101807.
^Prof. Dr. Yılmaz KURT, "Ramazanoğulları’nın Sonu: Adana’da Çemşid Bey İsyȃnı (1606–1607)", Tarihin İçinden, Ankara Üniversitesi
^Toksöz, Meltem (2010).Nomads, Migrants and Cotton in the Eastern Mediterranean: The Making of the Adana-Mersin Region, 1850–1908. Brill.ISBN978-9004191051.
^Yeghiayan, Puzant (1970),Ատանայի Հայոց Պատմութիւն [The History of the Armenians of Adana] (in Armenian), Beirut: Union of Armenian Compatriots of Adana, pp. 211–272
^See Raymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" inArmenian Cilicia, eds.Richard G. Hovannisian and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 351–353.
^Moumjian, Garabet K. "Cilicia Under French Administration: Armenian Aspirations, Turkish Resistance, and French Stratagems" inArmenian Cilicia, pp. 457–489.
^"Hatay". Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Archived fromthe original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved21 February 2020.
^"The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." – "Antioch,"Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 inonline .pdf file.Warning: Takes several minutes to download).
^"Heaven & Hell". ÇUKTOB. Archived fromthe original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved21 February 2020.Heaven & Hell consists of the grabens result from assoil of furrings in the thousands of years. Natural fenomen of this grabens is called as Heaven & Hell because of the exotic effects on people.You can go Heaven hole from an ancient path which has 452 steps and you can reach 260-meter long mythological giant Typhon cave.
^"TFF Databank". Turkish Football Federation. Retrieved25 July 2023.
^Bournoutian, Ani Atamian. "Cilician Armenia" inThe Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 283-290.ISBN1-4039-6421-1.
Grayson, A.K.[in German] (1975).Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles. Texts from Cuneiform Sources. Vol. 5.Locust Valley,United States: J. J. Augustin Publisher.
Simon, Zsolt (2019)."Syennesis: Personenname, kein luwischer Herrschertitel" [Syennesis: Personal Name, not a Luwian Royal Title].Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires [Brief and Useful Assyriological News].91 (3):122–123. Retrieved26 June 2024.
Rutishauser, Susanne. 2020.Siedlungskammer Kilikien. Studien zur Kultur- und Landschaftsgeschichte des Ebenen Kilikien. Schriften zur Vorderasiatischen Archäologie Bd. 16. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.ISBN978-3-447-11397-7.
As found in theNotitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed anddioceses established byDiocletian,c. 293. Permanentpraetorian prefectures established after the death ofConstantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates ofRavenna andAfrica established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by thetheme system in c. 640–660, although inAsia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.
.svg)
.svg)
_2.017_Adana_Vilayet.jpg)
_-_Corps_d%2527arm%25C3%25A9e_s%2527appr%25C3%25AAtant_%25C3%25A0_recevoir_le_g%25C3%25A9n%25C3%25A9ral_Gouraud.jpg)
