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Chronology of Tamil history

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History of Tamil Nadu

The following is a chronological overview of the history of theTamil people, who trace their ancestry to theIndian state ofTamil Nadu, the Indianunion territory ofPuducherry, theNorthern andEastern Provinces ofSri Lanka and thePuttalam District of Sri Lanka.[1][2]

Pre-Sangam period

[edit]
PeriodEvents
c. 600 BCEThe production process ofWootz steel began in the 6th century BCE and was exported globally by theChera dynasty as what was termed as"the finest steel in the world," i.e. Seric Iron to theRomans,Egyptians,Chinese andArabs by 500 BCE and was used to make the famousdamascus blades.[3][4][5][6]
c. 600–300 BCETheKeezhadi excavation site is built.[7][8] The site is located 12 km southeast ofMadurai inTamil Nadu, near the town ofKeezhadi in theSivagangai district. It comes under theThiruppuvanam Taluk of the Sivagangai district. A large-scale excavation carried out in Tamil Nadu after theAdichanallur archaeological site. The settlement lies on the bank of theVaigai River and reflects the ancientculture of the Tamil people.[9][10]
c. 400 BCEKaveripattinam, also known as Poompuhar in modern times, is located inMayiladuthurai district. The ancient port city, which served as a capital of theChola Dynasty is believed to have been destroyed by the sea.[11][12][13] The city functioned as a connecting point between South India with regions like Southeast Asia, the Roman Empire, and Greece.[14][15]

Sangam age

[edit]
PeriodEvents
c. 300 BCE–200 CETheSangam age begins, during which the books ofSangam literature are written.[16]
c. 300 BCEGreek ethnographerMegasthenes describesMadurai as the capital of thePandya dynasty.[17][18]
c. 250 BCEAshoka's inscription recording the four kingdoms (Chera,Cholas,Pandya andSatyaputra) of theancient Tamil country.
c. 205 BCEElara, a Tamil prince and contemporary ofSinhalese kingDutugamunu, ursurpes the throne of theAnuradhapura kingdom. He would rule until his defeat by Dutugamunu c. 161 BCE.
c. 13Greek historianNicolaus of Damascus meets with an ambassador sent by the Pandyan King to CaesarAugustus, Strabo XV.1–73.[19]
c. 1–100ThePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a detailed description of early Chera and Pandya kingdom and mentions a part of the Tamil country asLymirike (misread as "Damirica" by some modern scholars).[20]
c. 77 and 140Greco-Roman writersPliny the Elder andPtolemy mention Madurai to be ruled by the Pandyans.
c. 113–135Gajabahu I of theAnuradhapura kingdom, a contemporary of CheraSenguttuvan andKarikala Chola (theGajabahu synchronism).
c. 130Chera king Udayanjeral rules in the Chera country.
c. 190Chera Kadukko Ilanjeral Irumporai rules in the Chera country.[21]
c. 200Writing becomes widespread andvattezuttu evolves from the Tamil Brahmi, becoming a mature script for writingTamil.[22]
c. 210Pandyan king Neduncheliyan rules inMadurai and defeats his enemies at the battle of Talaiyalanganam.

Post-Sangam period

[edit]
PeriodEvents
c. 300–500End of the Sangam period, many Tamil epics such asSilappatikaram are written
c. 300–590Kalabhras invade the Tamil country and displace the traditional rulers from their kingdoms.

Pallava and Pandya

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PeriodEvents
c. 560–580PallavaSimhavishnu retakes power from the Kalabhras in Tondaimandalam.
c. 560–590PandyanKadungon rules from Madurai and displaces the Kalabhras from the south.
c. 590–630PallavaMahendravarman I rules inKanchipuram.
c. 610Saiva saintThirunavukkarasar (Appar) converts Mahendravarman fromJainism.
c. 628ChalukyaPulakesi II invades the Pallava kingdom and lays siege on Kanchipuram.
c. 630–668PallavaNarasimhavarman I (Mamalla) rules in Tondaimandalam.
c. 642Pallava Narasimhavarman I launches a counter-invasion into the Chalukya country and sacksVatapi.Pulakeshin II is killed in battle.
c. 640–690PandyaArikesari Parankusa Maravarman rules in Madurai.
c. 690–725Pallava Rajasimha builds the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram and many of the shore temples inMamallapuram.
c. 710–730Pandya kingKochadaiyan Ranadhiran expands thePandya kingdom into the Kongu country
c. 731Pandya Maravarman Rajasimha allies with the ChalukyaVikramaditya II and attacks the Pallava king Nandivarmam.
c. 735Chaluka Vikramaditya II invades the Pallava country and occupies the capital Kanchipuram.
c. 760Pallava Nandivarman II invades and defeats theGanga kingdom at the battle of Villande.
c. 768–815Pandya Parantaka Nedunchadaiyan (Varaguna Pandyan) rules in Madurai.[23]
c. 767Pandya forces defeat the Pallavas on the south banks of theKaveri river.
c. 800–830Varagunan I becomes Pandya king and extends his empire up toTiruchirapalli by defeating the Pallava king Dandivarman.
c. 830–862Pandya Sirmara Srivallabha rules in Madurai.
c. 840Srimara Srivallabha invades theAnuradhapura kingdom and captures the northern provinces of kingSena I of Anuradhapura.[24]
c. 848The rise ofVijayalaya Chola inTanjavur after the defeat of the Muttaraiyar.[25]
c. 846–869Pallava Nadivarman III leads an invasion against the Pandya kingdom and defeats the Pandyas at thebattle of Tellaru. The territory of the Pallava kingdom now extends to the riverVaigai.
c. 859Pandya Srivallaba defeats the Pallavas in battle atKumbakonam.
c. 862Sinhalese forces led bySena II of Anuradhapura invade the Pandyan kingdom and sack Madurai. Srimara is killed in battle.

Chola period

[edit]
PeriodEvents
c. 903Chola kingAditya I defeats the Pallava kingAparajitavarman.[26]
c. 949Battle ofTakkolam.
c. 985Accession ofRajaraja Chola I.[26]
c. 1010Rajaraja completes theBrihadisvara Temple.
c. 1012Accession ofRajendra Chola I.[26]
c. 1017Rajendrainvades and annexes theAnuradhapura kingdom.[27] Cholas capture the crown, queen, daughter, and wealth of KingMahinda V of Anuradhapura and take king himself as a prisoner to Tamil Nadu, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.
c. 1023Rajendra'sExpedition to the Ganges.[28]
c. 1025Chola navies defeat the king ofSrivijaya[29]
c. 1054Rajadhiraja Chola dies in the battle ofKoppam againstWestern Chalukyas[29]
c. 1070Accession ofKulothunga Chola I[29]
c. 1118Vikrama Chola[29]
c. 1133Kulothunga Chola II[29]
c. 1146Rajaraja Chola II[29]
c. 1163Rajadhiraja Chola II[29]
c. 1178Kulothunga Chola III[29]
c. 1216Rajaraja Chola III[29]
c. 1246Rajendra Chola III[29]

Chola to Pandya transition

[edit]
PeriodEvents
c. 1190–1260Bana Dynasty rule begins inMagadaimandalam with family title of 'ponparappinan' and headquarters atAragalur.[29]
c. 1215Kalinga Magha invades Sri Lanka leading to the fall of thePolonnaruwa kingdom. TheJaffna kingdom, a Tamil kingdom in Sri Lanka, is established.
c. 1216–1238TheKadava dynasty andMaravarman Sundara Pandyan establish rule over regions of South India.[30]

Pandiya revival and Muslim rule

[edit]
PeriodEvents
1251Accession ofJatavarman Sundara Pandyan I.[31]
1279End of theChola dynasty with the death ofRajendra Chola III.[29]
1268–1310Kulasekara Pandiyan rules in Madurai.[31]
1308Malik Kafur, a general ofAlauddin Khalji, invades Devagirien route to Tamil Nadu.[32]
1310Sundara Pandian III, son of Kulasekara Pandiyan, appointed as co-regent by his father. This angered his other son Vira Pandyan and prompted him to kill his father and defeat his elder brother, who then fled toAlauddin Khalji to become king.[33]
1311Malik Kafur invades the Pandiya country and attacks Madurai.[32]
1327–1370Madurai under the rule of theMadurai Sultanate.[32]

Tenkasi Pandyas, Vijayanagar and Nayak period

[edit]
PeriodEvents
1370Bukka, ruler of theVijayanagara Empire and his son Kumara Kamapna capture Madurai from madurai sultanate and annex with Vijayanagar.
1375RajanarayanaSambuvarayar allied with the Vijayanagar ruler Harihara I against the Sultanate of Madura but was later betrayed and killed by Harihara's brotherBukka Raya I & Bukka raya's sonKumara Kampana who sought to bring most of South India under his rule.
1428Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya started to rule from tenkasiTenkasi Pandyas, making tenkasi as capital
c. 1447–1450Bhuvanaikabahu VI of Kotte conquers theJaffna kingdom, and the kingdom becomes a part of the Sinhalesekingdom of Kotte.
1467TheJaffna kingdom regains independence from thekingdom of Kotte.
1518ThePortuguese land onCoromandel Coast inPulicat.[34]
1525The Chola ruler Veerasekara Chola invaded the Madurai country and deposed the Pandya king Chandrasekara Pandyan. The Pandya king asked help from Vijayanagara, and an expedition under Kotikam Nagama Nayaka was sent to his aid. Nagama suppressed the Chola ruler and took Madurai, but then suddenly he threw off his allegiance and declining to help the Pandya king, usurped the throne and his sonViswanatha Nayak foundedMadurai Nayak dynasty under the protection of the Vijayanagar.
1532–1580Sevappa Nayak rules as the first independent Nayak ruler in Tanjavur.
1547Vettum Perumal pandiyar, A pandiyan king ruling Tirunelveli along with his soldiers were attacked unexpectedly by Vijayanagara Nayak invaders. In this attack ten Pandiya soldiers were killed. To commemorate the death of these ten soldiers, ten Hero stones were installed and the stones are now exhibited in the Tirunelveli museum.
1560–1621Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom – thePortuguese invade andannex theJaffna kingdom and take kingCankili II as aPOW, thus marking the end of the Jaffna kingdom.
1609TheDutch establish a settlement inPulicat.
1616 – 1617Battle of Toppur the battle which cause the complete disintegration of the Vijayanagar Empire, which was reviving slowly. This civil war caused severe problems to the Vijayanagara Empire..
1620–1625With the death of Kollankondan son of pandian king Varagunarama Pandya, TheTenkasi Pandyas kingdom ends.
1625With no inheritors in Ponnjar royal family, ThePoonjar dynasty, A branch of Pandiyan kingdom ends. However another pandian branch continues to rule asPandalam dynasty till 1820 in present day kerala
1600–1645Ragunatha Nayak, the greatest of theTanjavur Nayaks.
1659RagunathaSethupathi saves madurai from Mysore/ Vijayanagar raid in the war of noses., WhileTirumalai Nayak rules in Madurai
1639TheBritish East India Company purchases Chennapatinam and establishesFort St. George.
1652Tanjavur andGingee fall to the Bijapur Sultan.
1656Mysore army invadesSalem against theMadurai Nayak Tirumalai., Ramnad king, Raghunatha Sethupathi win the war against mysore army and helps Tirumalai nayak to recover his kingdom
1676Maratha army from Bijapur marches into Tanjavur, Ekoji declares himself king.[35]
1692TheCarnatic Sultanate established by NawabZulfiqar Ali Khan, a viceroy of theMughal emperor.
1707Raghunatha Kilavan liberated the Marava country (area around Rameswaram) from the control of Madurai Nayak. After defeating Rani Mangammal’s army, he declared independent Marava country in 1707 and annexed some territories Aranthangi, Thirumayam, Piranmalai of Madurai kingdom.
1746Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais of theFrench East India Company attacks and captures Fort St. George from the British.

East India Company

[edit]
PeriodEvents
1749British regain Fort St. George through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, arising out of theWar of the Austrian Succession.
1751Robert Clive attacksArcot and captures it.[36]
1756The British and the French sign the first Carnatic treaty.Mahommed Ali Walajah is recognized asNawab of the Carnatic
1759The French, led byThomas Arthur, Comte de Lally, attack Madras.
1760The Battle of Vandavasi between the British and the French.
1767Hyder Ali, Sultan ofMysore attacks Madras against the British, but is defeated by the British at the Battle of Chengam.
1773TheBritish Government passes the Regulating Act. The administration of Madras comes under British government review.
1777–1832Serfoji II rules in Tanjavur.
1799Serfoji cedes the Tanjavur kingdom to the British.
1801Maruthu Pandiyar of Sivaganga organise the South Indian Chieftains against the East India Company. After a series of battles, they were captured and hanged in Tiruppathur Fort.
1803Bentinck appointed governor of Madras.
1800–1805Poligar Wars
1806TheVellore Mutiny: Indian soldiers of the East India CompanyVellore mutiny against governorWilliam Bentinck inVellore fort. 114 British officers are killed and 19 mutineers are executed.

British rule

[edit]
PeriodEvents
1892British government passes theIndian Councils Act.
1909Minto-Morley Reforms –Madras Legislative Council formed.
19201920 Madras Presidency Legislative Council election – the first regional elections held in Madras. TheJustice Party wins the election without any significant opposition and forms a government.[37]
1927The Madras Congress passes a resolution for "full independence"
1928TheSimon Commission visits Madras. Mass protests result in several deaths.
1937TheIndian National Congress (INC) led byC. Rajagopalachari wins the1937 legislative council elections and forms a government in Madras, defeating the incumbent Justice Party which held power for nearly 17 years.
1938E. V. Ramasamy organises a separatist agitation demandingDravida Nadu, a proposed sovereign state for the speakers ofDravidian languages inSouth India, consisting of the Indian states of Madras,Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh andKerala.
1944"Periyar" E.V. Ramasamy andC. N. Annadurai establish theDravidar Kazhagam (DK).
TheAll Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC), the firstSri Lankan Tamil political party, is founded byG. G. Ponnambalam.

Post-independence period

[edit]
PeriodEvents
1947TheMadras Presidency, comprisingTamil Nadu and parts ofAndhra Pradesh andKarnataka is established
1949C. N. Annadurai splits from the DK to form theDravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK).
A group of threeSri Lankan Tamil politicians,S. J. V. Chelvanayakam,C. Vanniasingam and SenatorE. M. V. Naganathan, split from the ACTC to form theIlankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK).
1953Madras State comes into being along linguistic lines.
1956The Official Language Act (No. 33 of 1956), also known as theSinhala Only Act is passed by theParliament of Ceylon.[38] The act replacedEnglish withSinhala as the soleofficial language ofCeylon, with the controversial exclusion ofTamil.
1958TheSinhala Only Act is amended and the Tamil Language (Special Provisions) Act of 1958 is passed inCeylon, thus makingTamil anofficial language of Ceylon.
1965Widespreadanti-Hindi agitations in response to theunion government's decision to makeHindi as the national language ofIndia.
1967An alliance led by the DMK wins the1967 Madras elections and replaces the INC government in Madras State;C. N. Annadurai becomes the first non-INCChief Minister of Madras post-independence.
1969Madras state is renamed asTamil Nadu (country of the Tamils).[39][40]
1972After decades of oppression of Sri Lankan Tamils by theSinhalese government,Velupillai Prabhakaran founds theTamil New Tigers, which would later be renamed as theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in 1976. It was aSri Lankan Tamil militant group which advocated for the creation of an independent state ofTamil Eelam in theNorthern and theEastern Provinces ofSri Lanka.
1983–2009TheSri Lankan Civil War is fought between theSri Lanka Army and theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. It ended in May 2009 with the total military defeat of the LTTE, the killing ofVelupillai Prabhakaran and a total of 80,000–100,000 deaths.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Manual of the Puttalam District of the North-Western Province of Ceylon (1908), Frank Modder, p.55.
  2. ^Minahan, James (2012).Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1.
  3. ^Srinivasan, Sharada (15 November 1994)."Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India".Papers from the Institute of Archaeology.5:49–59.doi:10.5334/pia.60.
  4. ^Coghlan, Herbert Henery (1977).Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World (2nd ed.).Pitt Rivers Museum. pp. 99–100.
  5. ^Sasisekharan, B. (1999)."Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal"(PDF).Indian Journal of History of Science.34 (4). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 24 July 2015.
  6. ^Ward, Gerald W. R. (2008).The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 380.ISBN 978-0-19531-391-8.
  7. ^Dennis S. Jesudasan (20 September 2019)."Keezhadi excavations: Sangam era older than previously thought, finds study".The Hindu.
  8. ^"Keeladi | Department Of Archaeology".www.tnarch.gov.in. Retrieved12 August 2021.
  9. ^"Keeladi: Unearthing the 'Vaigai Valley' Civilisation of Sangam era Tamil Nadu".
  10. ^எஸ். அண்ணாமலை (18 June 2015)."அகழ்ந்தெடுக்கப்பட்டது: பாண்டிய-ரோம வணிகத் தொடர்பு (ஆங்கிலத்தில்)". The Hindu. Retrieved12 September 2015.
  11. ^Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar-Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast, Rao, S.R..Journal of Marine Archaeology, Vol. II, July 1991. Available online at[1]Archived 24 January 2011 at theWayback Machine
  12. ^Gaur A. S. and Sundaresh,Underwater Exploration off Poompuhar and possible causes of its Submergence, 1998,Puratattva, 28: 84–90. Available online at[2]
  13. ^"Indian town sees evidence of ancient tsunami", Associated Press report, Poompuhar,14 January 2005. Available online at[3]
  14. ^"Maritime Intercontinental Trade in Submerged Poompuhar Port City—A Case Study".ResearchGate. Archived fromthe original on 30 March 2025. Retrieved5 October 2025.
  15. ^Ramasamy, S. M. (October–December 2020)."Geoscientific perspectives of the submerged / lost harbours and ports: Ancient port city Poompuhar, South India".Indian Journal of Geosciences.74 (4):381–394.
  16. ^Singh, Upinder (2009).A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India 1st Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.ISBN 978-8131716779.
  17. ^Allan Dahlaquist. Megasthenes and Indian Religion
  18. ^Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press.ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
  19. ^Strabo XV.1
  20. ^Lionel Casson (2012).The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary. Princeton University Press. pp. 213–214.ISBN 978-1-4008-4320-6.
  21. ^Zvelebil, Kamil Veith (1991).Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-9004093652.
  22. ^Coningham (), Robin; et al."Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Project, Phase I: ASW2". Arts and Humanities Research Council. Archived fromthe original on 7 March 2013. Retrieved12 April 2014.
  23. ^"Preserving the past".The Hindu. India. 3 February 2010.
  24. ^"Sinhala king and South Indian invasions".Daily News. Sri Lanka. 20 October 2009. Archived fromthe original on 21 March 2013.
  25. ^"Chapter 1-4.pmd"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 13 March 2012. Retrieved7 November 2012.
  26. ^abcKulke and Rothermund (2010).A History of India. Routledge. p. 115.ISBN 9780415485432.
  27. ^Meyer, Holger (1999).Umsatzsteuer – Binnenmarkt. Berlin: Boorberg. p. 73.ISBN 978-3415026131.
  28. ^Majumdar, R.C. (1934).Ancient Indian Colonies In The Far East. Dacca: Asoke Humar Majumdar Ramna. p. 407.
  29. ^abcdefghijklNilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2005).A History of South India. New Age International Limited (P). p. 158.
  30. ^Sethuraman, N (1980).Medieval Pandyas, A.D. 1000–1200. University of Michigan.
  31. ^abThinakaran, Alice Justina (15 May 2007).The Second Pandyan Empire, A.D. 1190–1312. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. p. 225.
  32. ^abcAiyangar, Sakkottai Krishnaswami (1921).South India and her Muhammadan Invaders. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 222–223.
  33. ^Aiyangar, Sakkottai Krishnaswami (1921).South India and her Muhammadan Invaders. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 97.
  34. ^"Portuguese on the Coromandel".The Hindu. India. 17 May 2004. Archived fromthe original on 1 August 2004.
  35. ^"Historical Moments". Thanjavur Municipality, Tamil Nadu state Government. Archived fromthe original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved28 May 2013.
  36. ^"Excerpts from a Sergeant's Diary recounting Robert Clive's capture of Arcot, September–October 1751".Project South Asia. South Dakota State University, USA. Retrieved11 July 2013.
  37. ^"A history of agitational politics".Frontline. India. 10 April 2004.
  38. ^Sri Lanka Consolidated Acts
  39. ^"Archived copy". Archived fromthe original on 18 March 2016. Retrieved11 May 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  40. ^"Archived copy"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2 December 2013. Retrieved11 May 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  • Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India, OUP, Reprinted 2000
  • Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, Allied Publishers Ltd, New Delhi, Reprinted 2000
  • Read, Anthony, The Proudest Day – India's Long Ride to Independence, Jonathan Cape, London, 1997

External links

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