There are different hypotheses regarding thedate of Jesus's birth. In the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25, the date of thewinter solstice in the Roman Empire. It is nine months afterAnnunciation on March 25, also the Roman date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in theGregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in thecivil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of theEastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the olderJulian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, celebrating thatGod came into the world in theform of man toatone for thesins of humanity is more important than knowing Jesus's exact birth date.
The English wordChristmas is a shortened form of 'Christ'sMass'.[5] The word is recorded asCrīstesmæsse in 1038 andCristes-messe in 1131.[6]Crīst (genitiveCrīstes) is from theGreekΧριστός (Khrīstos, 'Christ'), a translation of theHebrewמָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ, 'Messiah'), meaning 'anointed';[7][8] andmæsse is from theLatinmissa, the celebration of theEucharist.[9]
The formChristenmas was also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic and dialectal.[10] The term derives fromMiddle EnglishCristenmasse, meaning 'Christian mass'.[11]Xmas is an abbreviation ofChristmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letterchi (Χ) in the GreekΧριστός (Christ), although somestyle guides discourage its use.[12] This abbreviation has precedent in Middle EnglishΧρ̄es masse (whereΧρ̄ is another abbreviation of the Greek word).[11]
Other names
The holiday has had various other English names throughout its history. TheAnglo-Saxons referred to the feast as "midwinter",[13][14] or, more rarely, asNātiuiteð (from the Latinnātīvitās below).[13][15]Nativity, meaning 'birth', is from the Latinnātīvitās.[16] InOld English,Gēola ('Yule') referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas.[17] 'Noel' (also 'Nowel' or 'Nowell', as in "The First Nowell") entered English in the late 14th century and is from theOld Frenchnoël ornaël, itself ultimately from the Latinnātālis (diēs) meaning 'birth (day)'.[18]
Koleda is the traditional Slavic name for Christmas and the period from Christmas to Epiphany or, more generally, to Slavic Christmas-related rituals, some dating to pre-Christian times.[19]
Adoration of the Shepherds by Dutch painterMatthias Stomer, 1632
The gospels ofLuke andMatthew describe Jesus as being born inBethlehem to theVirgin Mary. In the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary travel fromNazareth to Bethlehem in order to be counted for a census, and Jesus is born there and placed in amanger.[20] Angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and three shepherds come to adore him. In the Gospel of Matthew, by contrast, three magi follow astar to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born theking of the Jews.King Herod orders themassacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later returns to Nazareth.[21]
In the 2nd century, the "earliest church records" indicate that "Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord", an "observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers"; although "they did not agree upon a set date".[22] The earliest document to place Jesus's birthday on December 25 is theChronograph of 354 (also called the Calendar of Filocalus), which also names it as the birthday ofSol Invictus (the 'Invincible Sun').[23][24][25][26]
Liturgical historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336.[24] This is consistent with the assertion that the date was formally set byPope Julius I, bishop of Rome from 337 to 352.[27] Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writersIrenaeus andTertullian,[6] the early Church FathersJohn Chrysostom,Augustine of Hippo, andJerome attested to December 25 as the date of Christmas toward the end of the fourth century.[22] December 25 was the traditional date of thewinter solstice in the Roman Empire,[28] where most Christians lived, and the Roman festivalDies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday of Sol Invictus) had been held on this date since 274 AD.[29]
In theEast, the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with theEpiphany on January 6.[30][31] This holiday was not primarily about Christ's birth, but ratherhis baptism.[32] Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival ofOrthodox Christianity that followed the death of the pro-Arian EmperorValens at theBattle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced inConstantinople in 379, inAntioch byJohn Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century,[31] probably in 388, and inAlexandria in the following century.[33] The Georgian Iadgari demonstrates that Christmas was celebrated in Jerusalem by thesixth century.[34]
The Nativity, from a 14th-centurymissal, a liturgical book containing texts and music necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year
In theEarly Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which inwestern Christianity focused on the visit of themagi. However, the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast ofSt. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.[35] In Italy, formerSaturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[35] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to theTwelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.[35]
In 567, theCouncil of Tours put in place the season ofChristmastide, proclaiming "thetwelve days from Christmas to Epiphany as a sacred and festive season, and established the duty ofAdvent fasting in preparation for the feast".[36] This was done in order to solve the "administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east".[37]
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually afterCharlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800.[38] KingEdmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and KingWilliam I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.[39]
The coronation ofCharlemagne on Christmas of 800 helped promote the popularity of the holiday.
By theHigh Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where variousmagnates celebrated Christmas.King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten.[35] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts.Caroling also became popular, and was originally performed by a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.[35] "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day (a custom at the royal court), and there was special Christmas ale.[35]
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporatedivy,holly, and other evergreens.[40] Christmasgift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.[40] The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607,King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.[41] It was during theReformation in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to theChrist Child orChristkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[42]
However, in 17th century England, some groups such as thePuritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings ofpopery" or the "rags ofthe Beast".[49] In contrast, the establishedAnglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party".[50] TheCatholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. KingCharles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity.[41] Following theParliamentarian victory over Charles I during theEnglish Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.[49][51] Oliver Cromwell went so far as to order troops to seize any special, holiday meals prepared on that day.[52]
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeksCanterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways withholly and shoutedroyalist slogans.[49] Football, among the sports the Puritans banned on a Sunday, was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.[53] The book,The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.[54] During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret.[55]
The Examination and Tryal ofOld Father Christmas, (1686), published after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England
Christmas was restored as a legal holiday in England with theRestoration ofKing Charles II in 1660 when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, with Christmas again freely celebrated in England,[55] though in a limited way.[56]. Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the PresbyterianChurch of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and thoughJames VI commanded its celebration in 1618,attendance at church was scant.[57] TheParliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days".[58] Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been a customary holiday sincetime immemorial, it was not until 1871 that it was designated abank holiday in Scotland.[59] Following the Restoration of Charles II,Poor Robin's Almanack contained the lines: "Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no".[60] The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.[61]
As in England, Puritans inColonial America staunchly opposed the observation of Christmas.[62] ThePilgrims of New England pointedly spent their first December 25 in the New World working normally.[62] Puritans such asCotton Mather condemned Christmas both because scripture did not mention its observance and because Christmas celebrations of the day often involved boisterous behavior.[63][64] Many non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England.[65] Christmas observance was outlawed inBoston in 1659.[62] The ban on Christmas observance was revoked in 1681 by English governorEdmund Andros, but it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[66]
At the same time, Christian residents ofVirginia and New York observed the holiday freely.Pennsylvania Dutch settlers, predominantlyMoravian settlers ofBethlehem,Nazareth, andLititz in Pennsylvania and theWachovia settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes.[67] Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after theAmerican Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.[68]George Washington attackedHessian (German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during theBattle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.
In the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services gradually spread with the rise of theOxford Movement in theChurch of England that emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor,[70] along withWashington Irving,Charles Dickens, and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, andSanta Claus (for Irving),[70] orFather Christmas (for Dickens).[71] An indication this increased recognition of Christmas was slow, however, is seen in the fact that "in twenty of the years between 1790 and 1835,The Times did not mention Christmas at all."[72]
In the early-19th century, writers imaginedTudor-period Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1835, Thomas Hervey and Robert Seymour publishedThe Christmas Book in which they introduced what has been called a "national Christmas narrative."[73] In his book, Hervey asserted: "the revels of merry England are fast subsiding into silence, and her many customs wearing gradually away."[74] In 1843,Charles Dickens wrote the novelA Christmas Carol, which helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.[75][76] Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.[70]
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation".[77] Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy",[78] Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.[79] It has been said that Dickens' breakthrough withA Christmas Carol was his "ingenious pairing of seasonal fiction and seasonal [book] sales."[80] A prominent phrase from the tale,"Merry Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story.[81] This coincided with the appearance of theOxford Movement and the growth ofAnglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.[82]
The Queen's Christmas tree atWindsor Castle, published in theIllustrated London News, 1848
In Britain, theChristmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century by the German-bornQueen Charlotte. In 1832, the futureQueen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung withlights,ornaments, and presents placed round it.[85] After her marriage to her German cousinPrince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.[86] An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in theIllustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published inGodey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia in 1850.[87][88] By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.[87]
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories byWashington Irving which appear in hisThe Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying inAston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned,[89] and he used the tractVindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.[41]
In 1822,Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poemA Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line:Twas the Night Before Christmas).[90] The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.[91] This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associatedcommercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 bookThe First Christmas in New England,Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains thatthe true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.[92]
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S.,Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so".[93] InReading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth."[93]
The First Congregational Church of Rockford,Illinois, "although of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864.[93] By 1860, fourteen states including several fromNew England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday.[94] In 1875,Louis Prang introduced theChristmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card".[95] On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared aUnited States federal holiday.[96]
During theFirst World War and particularly (but not exclusively) in 1914,[97] a series ofinformal truces took place for Christmas between opposing armies. The truces, which were organised spontaneously by fighting men, ranged from promises not to shoot (shouted at a distance in order to ease the pressure of war for the day) to friendly socializing, gift giving and even sport between enemies.[98] These incidents became a well known and semi-mythologised part of popular memory.[99] They have been described as a symbol of common humanity even in the darkest of situations and used to demonstrate to children the ideals of Christmas.[100]
Under thestate atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public.[101] During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, theLeague of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.[102] At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit oncrucifixes as a protest against the holiday.[103] Instead, the importance of the holiday and all its trappings, such as the Christmas tree and gift-giving, was transferred to the New Year.[104] It was not until thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that thepersecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades.[105]
In 1991, theGubbio Christmas Tree, in Italy, 650 meters high and decorated with over 700 lights, entered theGuinness Book of Records as the tallest Christmas tree in the world.[106] European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, inNazi Germany, "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies".[107]
As Christmas celebrations began to spread globally even outside traditionalChristian cultures, several Muslim-majority countries began to ban the observance of Christmas, claiming it underminedIslam.[108] In 2023, public Christmas celebrations were cancelled inBethlehem, the city synonymous with the birth of Jesus.Palestinian leaders of various Christian denominations cited theongoing Israel–Hamas war in their unanimous decision to cancel celebrations.[109]
Christmas at theAnnunciation Church in Nazareth, 1965Dark brown – countries that do not recognize Christmas on December 25 or January 7 as a public holiday. Light brown – countries that do not recognize Christmas as a public holiday, but the holiday is given observanceMany Christians attendchurch services to celebrate thebirth of Jesus Christ[110]
Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the cultural aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees. A similar example is inTurkey, being Muslim-majority and with a small number of Christians, where Christmas trees and decorations tend to line public streets during the festival.[citation needed]
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus's birth, with some claiming that certain elements are Christianized and have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were laterconverted to Christianity; other scholars reject these claims and affirm that Christmas customs largely developed in a Christian context.[111][112] The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken,carnival-like state in theMiddle Ages,[35] to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation.[75][76] The celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain groups, such as thePuritans andJehovah's Witnesses (who do not celebrate birthdays in general), due to concerns that it was too unbiblical.[49][62][113]Celtic winter herbs such asmistletoe andivy, and the custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries.[114]
The pre-ChristianGermanic peoples—including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival calledYule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern Englishyule, today used as a synonym forChristmas.[115] In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including theYule log,Yule boar, and theYule goat.[116][115] Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (theWild Hunt), the long-bearded godOdin is referred to as "the Yule one" and "Yule father" in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as "Yule beings".[117] On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to the pagan practice.[118]
Amongcountries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For example, in eastern Europe Christmas celebrations incorporated pre-Christian traditions such as theKoleda,[119] which shares parallels with theChristmas carol.
Church attendance
Christmas Day (inclusive of itsvigil, Christmas Eve), is aFestival in theLutheran Churches, asolemnity in theRoman Catholic Church, and aPrincipal Feast of theAnglican Communion. Other Christian denominations do not rank their feast days but nevertheless place importance on Christmas Eve/Christmas Day, as with other Christian feasts like Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost.[120] As such, for Christians, attending a Christmas Eve or Christmas Daychurch service plays an important part in the recognition of theChristmas season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey byLifeWay Christian Resources found that six in ten Americans attend church services during this time.[121] In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5million people at Christmas services in 2015.[122]
Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by SaintFrancis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe.[123] Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourfulKraków szopka in Poland,[124] which imitateKraków's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italianpresepi (Neapolitan [it],Genoese [it] andBolognese [it]),[125][126][127][128] or theProvençal crèches insouthern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines calledsantons.[129] In certain parts of the world, notablySicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches.[130][131][132] The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children.[133] In countries where a representation of theNativity scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable familyheirloom.[134]
The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold.[135][136] Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in hiscrucifixion; green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter; and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of theMagi, symbolizing royalty.[137]
The official White House Christmas tree for 1962, displayed in the Entrance Hall and presented byJohn F. Kennedy and his wifeJackie
TheChristmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of theProtestant Reformer,Martin Bucer.[138][139] In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; theMoravians put lighted candles on those trees".[140][141] Whendecorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing theStar of Bethlehem, a fact recorded byThe School Journal in 1897.[142][143] Professor David Albert Jones ofOxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of theNativity of Jesus.[144] Additionally, in the context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the Christmas tree, being evergreen in colour, issymbolic of Christ, who offers eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent theLight of the World—Jesus—born in Bethlehem.[145][146] Christian services for family use and public worship have been published for the blessing of a Christmas tree, after it has been erected.[147][148] The Christmas tree is considered by some asChristianisation ofpagan tradition and ritual surrounding theWinter Solstice, which included the use ofevergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagantree worship;[149] according to eighth-century biographerÆddi Stephanus,Saint Boniface (634–709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an ax to an oak tree dedicated toThor and pointed out afir tree, which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed toheaven and it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of theTrinity.[150] The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835[151] and represents an importation from the German language.[149][152][153]
An advent wreath as designed byJohann Hinrich Wichern. On Christmas, the Christ Candle in the center of the wreath is traditionally lit in manychurch services.
Since the 16th century, thepoinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas carrying the Christian symbolism of theStar of Bethlehem; in that country it is known in Spanish as theFlower of the Holy Night.[154][155] Other popular holiday plants include holly,mistletoe, redamaryllis, andChristmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along withgarlands andevergreen foliage. The display ofChristmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminatedsleighs,snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Mistletoe features prominently in European myth and folklore (for example, the legend ofBaldr); it is an evergreen parasitic plant that grows on trees, especially apple and poplar, and turns golden when it is dried. It is customary to hang a sprig of mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneath it may be kissed.
Other traditional decorations includebells,candles,candy canes,stockings,wreaths, andangels. The wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from anevergreen, make up Christmas wreaths. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.[156]
Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played by speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places.[157] It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured to wrap gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down onTwelfth Night.
For the Christian celebration of Christmas, the viewing of theNativity play is one of the oldest Christmastime traditions, with the first reenactment of theNativity of Jesus taking place in A.D. 1223 in the Italian town ofGreccio.[160] In that year,Francis of Assisi assembled a Nativity scene outside of his church in Italy and children sang Christmas carols celebrating the birth of Jesus.[160]
Each year, this grew larger, and people travelled from afar to see Francis' depiction of the Nativity of Jesus that came to feature drama and music.[160] Nativity plays eventually spread throughout all of Europe, where they remain popular. Christmas Eve and Christmas Day church services often came to feature Nativity plays, as did schools and theatres.[160] In France, Germany, Mexico, and Spain, Nativity plays are often reenacted outdoors in the streets.[160]
The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in fourth-centuryRome. Latin hymns such as"Veni redemptor gentium", written byAmbrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition toArianism."Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of the Father's love begotten") by the Spanish poetPrudentius (died 413) is still sung in some churches today.[161] In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing underBernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymedstanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monkAdam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditionalChristmas carol. Christmas carols in English appear in a 1426 work ofJohn Awdlay who lists twenty five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of 'wassailers', who went from house to house.[162]
The songs now known specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based onmedieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie", "Good King Wenceslas", and"In dulci jubilo" can be traced directly back to theMiddle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung."Adeste Fideles" (O Come all ye faithful) appeared in its current form in the mid-18th century.
The singing of carols increased in popularity after theProtestant Reformation in theLutheran areas of Europe, as the ReformerMartin Luther wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship, in addition to spearheading the practice of caroling outside theMass.[163] The 18th-century English reformerCharles Wesley, a founder ofMethodism, understood the importance of music to Christian worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing".[164]
Christmas seasonal songs of a secular nature emerged in the late 18th century. The Welsh melody for "Deck the Halls" dates from 1794, with the lyrics added by Scottish musicianThomas Oliphant in 1862, and the American "Jingle Bells" was copyrighted in 1857. Other popular carols include "The First Noel", "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", "The Holly and the Ivy", "I Saw Three Ships", "In the Bleak Midwinter", "Joy to the World", "Once in Royal David's City" and "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks".[165] In the 19th and 20th centuries, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holiday songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music.
A specialChristmas family meal is traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the food served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions have special meals for Christmas Eve, such asSicily, where 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread, and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such asChristmas pudding,mince pies,fruit cake andYule log cake.[168][169]
In Poland and Scandinavia, fish is often used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden, it is common with a special variety ofsmörgåsbord, where ham, meatballs, and herring play a prominent role. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular worldwide. TheMaltese traditionally serveImbuljuta tal-Qastan,[170] a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, afterMidnight Mass and throughout the Christmas season. Slovenes prepare the traditional Christmas breadpotica,bûche de Noël in France,panettone in Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes.Panettone, anItalian type ofsweet bread andfruitcake, originally fromMilan, Italy, usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas andNew Year inWestern,Southern, andSoutheastern Europe, as well as inSouth America,Eritrea,[171] Australia and North America.[172]
The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the Germanstollen,marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods.Eggnog is asweeteneddairy-basedbeverage traditionally made with milk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frothy texture).Spirits such as brandy, rum, or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.
A 1907 Christmas card withSanta and some of his reindeer
Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercialChristmas card, produced bySir Henry Cole in London in 1843.[173] The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchangingE-cards.[174][175]
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to theChristmas narrative, withdepictions of the Nativity of Jesus, orChristian symbols such as theStar of Bethlehem, or a whitedove, which can represent both theHoly Spirit andPeace on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more secular and can depictChristmas traditions, figures such as Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly, and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes, and the wildlife of the northern winter.[176]
A number of nations have issuedcommemorative stamps at Christmastide.[177] Postal customers will often use these stamps to mailChristmas cards, and they are popular withphilatelists.[178] These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlikeChristmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale sometime between early October and early December and are printed in considerable quantities.
Christmas seals were first issued to raise funding to fight and bring awareness totuberculosis. The first Christmas seal was issued inDenmark in 1904, and since then other countries have issued their own Christmas seals.[179]
The exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated withSaint Nicholas,[180] and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by theMagi.[181][182] The practice of gift giving in theRoman celebration ofSaturnalia may have influenced Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian "core dogma of theIncarnation, however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event", because it was the Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's renewed participation in the divine life".[183] However, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman EmperorAurelian placed the alternate festival on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first.[184]
The best known of these figures today is red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name 'Santa Claus' can be traced back to the DutchSinterklaas ('Saint Nicholas'). Nicholas was a 4th-centuryGreek bishop ofMyra, a city in theRoman province ofLycia, whose ruins are 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from modernDemre in southwest Turkey.[186][187] Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.[42]
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At theReformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child orChristkindl, corrupted in English to 'Kris Kringle', and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[42]
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors includingWashington Irving and theGerman-American cartoonistThomas Nast (1840–1902). Following theAmerican Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town ofNew Amsterdam and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.[188]
Current tradition in severalLatin American countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditionalreligious beliefs and theiconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.
In Italy'sSouth Tyrol, Austria, the Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, theChristkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents fromSaint Basil on New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast.[189] The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied byKnecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering itdeceptive.[190]
Multiple gift-giver figures exist in Poland, varying between regions and individual families. St Nicholas (Święty Mikołaj) dominates Central and North-East areas, the Starman (Gwiazdor) is most common inGreater Poland, Baby Jesus (Dzieciątko) is unique toUpper Silesia, with the Little Star (Gwiazdka) and the Little Angel (Aniołek) being common in the South and the South-East. Grandfather Frost (Dziadek Mróz) is less commonly accepted in some areas of Eastern Poland.[191][192] It is worth noting that across all of Poland, St Nicholas is the gift giver onSaint Nicholas Day on December 6.
Sport
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival with annual indulgences included the sporting.[42] When Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.[53] The OrkneyChristmas Day Ba' tradition continues.[193] In theformer top tier of English football, home and away Christmas Day and Boxing Day double headers were often played guaranteeing football clubs large crowds by allowing many working people their only chance to watch a game.[194] ChampionsPreston North End facedAston Villaon Christmas Day 1889[195] and the last December 25 fixture was in1965 in England,Blackpool beating Blackburn Rovers 4–2.[194] One of the most memorable images of theChristmas truce during World War I was the games of football played between the opposing sides on Christmas Day 1914.[196]
More recently, in the United States, bothNFL andNBA have held fixtures on Christmas Day.[197]
Christmas in China
During the lateQing dynasty theShanghai News referred to Christmas by a variety of terms. In 1872 it initially called Christmas "Jesus' birthday" (Chinese:耶穌誕日;pinyin:yēsū dànrì), but from 1873 to 1881 it used terms such as "Western countries' Winter Solstice" (Chinese:西國冬至;pinyin:xīguó dōngzhì) and "Western peoples' Winter Solstice" (Chinese:西人冬節;pinyin:xīrén dōngjiē), before finally settling on "Foreign Winter Solstice" (Chinese:外國冬至;pinyin:wàiguó dōngzhì) from 1882 onwards. This term was gradually replaced by the now standard term "Festival of the birth of the Holy One" (Chinese:聖誕節;pinyin:shèngdàn jiē) during the early years of the twentieth century.[198]
In Scandinavia—Denmark,Norway,Sweden—whereLutheranism is dominant, Christmas (jul) is celebrated on 24 December.In Sweden, it is traditional for companies to host a Christmas buffet lunch (julbord or jullunch) for their employees a week before Christmas. To prevent food poisoning during the holiday season, Swedish newspapers annually publish reports and laboratory tests warning the public to avoid leaving cold cuts, mayonnaise, and other perishable foods at room temperature to prevent spoilage. Christmas in Sweden is a time to indulge in festive meals, with roasted ham being the centerpiece of the feast. However, the exact day for enjoying this treat varies across regions, with each area having its own traditions. Another well-established custom in Sweden is tuning in to watch a special Disney television program at precisely 3 p.m. on December 24.
In Norway, the Christmas feast is held on December 24, with each region offering its own special dishes for Christmas dinner. After the meal, "Julenissen" (where "jule" means Christmas and "nissen" refers to a mythical elf in Norwegian folklore) brings gifts to well-behaved children. Following a quiet family gathering on December 25, another grand celebration takes place on Boxing Day, December 26, where children go door-to-door visiting neighbors and receiving treats.
There are several theories as to why December 25 was chosen as the date for Christmas. However, theology professor Susan Roll notes that "no liturgical historian [...] goes so far as to deny that it has any sort of relation with the sun, thewinter solstice and the popularity of solar worship in the later Roman Empire".[201] The early Church linked Jesus Christ to the Sun and referred to him as the 'Sun of Righteousness' (Sol Justitiae) prophesied byMalachi.[202][203] In the early fifth century,Augustine of Hippo andMaximus of Turin preached that it was fitting to celebrate Christ's birth at the winter solstice, because it marked the point when the hours of daylight begin to grow.[204][205]
The 'history of religions' or 'substitution' theory suggests that the Church chose December 25 as Christ's birthday (dies Natalis Christi)[206] to appropriate the Roman winter solstice festivaldies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday ofSol Invictus, the 'Invincible Sun'), held on this date since 274 AD; before the earliest evidence of Christmas on that date.[28][29] Gary Forsythe, Professor of Ancient History, says that theNatalis Solis Invicti followed "the seven-day period of theSaturnalia (December 17–23), Rome's most joyous holiday season sinceRepublican times, characterized by parties, banquets, and exchanges of gifts".[28] Roll says that "the specific nature of the relation" between Christmas and theNatalis Solis Invicti has not yet been "conclusively proven from extant texts".[201]
Some jurisdictions of theEastern Orthodox Church, including those ofRussia,Georgia,North Macedonia,Montenegro,Serbia, andJerusalem, mark feasts using the olderJulian calendar. As of 2024[update], there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modernGregorian calendar, which is used internationally for most secular purposes. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7.[208]
A further complication is added by the fact that theArmenian Apostolic Church continues the original ancientEastern Christian practice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because since 1923 the Armenian Church in Armenia has used the Gregorian calendar.[211]
However, there is also a smallArmenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates "Christmas" (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world.[212]
Revised Julian calendar was agreed at the 1923 Council of Constantinople.[209]
Although it follows the Julian calendar, the Ancient Church of the East decided on 2010 to celebrate Christmas according to the Gregorian calendar date.
Correspondence between Julian December 25 and Gregorian January 7 of the following year holds until 2100; from 2101 to 2199 the difference will be one day more.[citation needed]
After the Coptic insertion of a leap day in what for the Julian calendar is August (September in Gregorian), Christmas is celebrated on Koiak 28 in order to maintain the exact interval of nine 30-day months and 5 days of the child's gestation.[citation needed]
After the Ethiopian and Eritrean insertion of a leap day in what for the Julian calendar is August (September in Gregorian), Christmas (also called Liddet or Gena, also Ledet or Genna)[217] is celebrated on Tahsas 28 in order to maintain the exact interval of nine 30-day months and 5 days of the child's gestation.[218]
Most Protestants (P'ent'ay/Evangelicals) in the diaspora have the option of choosing theEthiopian calendar (Tahsas 29/January 7) or theGregorian calendar (December 25) for religious holidays, with this option being used when the correspondingeastern celebration is not a public holiday in the western world (with most diaspora Protestants celebrating both days).[citation needed]
Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world; sales increase dramatically during this time as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the United States, the "Christmas shopping season" starts as early as October.[219] In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns beforeHalloween (October 31) and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high streetChristmas lights are turned on.[220][221] A concept devised by retail entrepreneurDavid Lewis, the firstChristmas grotto opened inLewis's department store in Liverpool, England in 1879.[222] In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season.[223] Figures from theUS Census Bureau reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8billion in November 2004 to $31.9billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6million to 1.8million in the two months leading up to Christmas.[224] Industries completely dependent on Christmas includeChristmas cards, of which 1.9billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas trees, of which 20.8million were cut in the US in 2002.[225] In the UK in 2010, up to £8billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales.[221]
In most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. InEngland and Wales, theChristmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Similar legislation was approved in Scotland in 2007.Film studios release many high-budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for theAcademy Awards.[226]
One economist's analysis calculates that despite increased overall spending, Christmas is adeadweight loss under orthodoxmicroeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4billion deadweight loss in the US alone.[227][228] Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived aswhite elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.[229]
Christmas decorations at theGaleries Lafayette department store in Paris, France. The Christmas season is the busiest trading period for retailers.
A 1931 edition of the Soviet magazineBezbozhnik, published by theLeague of Militant Atheists, depicting an Orthodox Christian priest being forbidden to take home a tree for the celebration ofChristmastide, which was banned under the Marxist–Leninist doctrine ofstate atheism[230]
Some Christians and organizations such asPat Robertson'sAmerican Center for Law and Justice cite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a "war on Christmas").[240] Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its religious aspects is being increasinglycensored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees.[241] In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greetingMerry Christmas withHappy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration ofHanukkah.[242] In the U.S., and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as beingpolitically correct.[243][244][245] In 1984, theU.S. Supreme Court ruled inLynch v. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city ofPawtucket, Rhode Island, did not violate the First Amendment.[246] American Muslim scholarAbdul Malik Mujahid has said that Muslims must treat Christmas with respect, even if they disagree with it.[247]
The government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism,[248] and has conductedantireligious campaigns to this end.[249] In December 2018, officials raided Christian churches prior to Christmastide and coerced them to close; Christmas trees and Santa Clauses were also forcibly removed.[250][251]
Nochebuena – Evening or day before Christmas DayPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Notes
^Several branches ofEastern Christianity that use theJulian calendar also celebrate on December 25 according to that calendar, which is now January 7 on theGregorian calendar. Armenian Churches observed the nativity on January 6 even before the Gregorian calendar originated. Most Armenian Christians use the Gregorian calendar, still celebrating Christmas Day on January 6. Some Armenian churches use the Julian calendar, thus celebrating Christmas Day on January 19 on the Gregorian calendar, with January 18 being Christmas Eve. Some regions also celebrate primarily on December 24, rather than December 25.
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