17th-centurymissionary activity inAsia and theAmericas grew strongly, put down roots, and developed its institutions, though it met withstrong resistance in Japan in particular. At the same time Christian colonization of some areas outside Europe succeeded, driven by economic as well as religious reasons. Christian traders were heavily involved in theAtlantic slave trade, which transported Africans into Christian communities. A land war between Christianity andIslam continued, in the form of the campaigns of theHabsburg Empire andOttoman Empire in theBalkans, a turning point coming atVienna in 1683. TheTsardom of Russia, whereOrthodox Christianity was the established religion, expanded eastwards intoSiberia andCentral Asia, regions of Islamic andshamanistic beliefs, and also southwest intoUkraine, where the UniateEastern Catholic Churches arose.

There was a very large volume of Christian literature published, particularly controversial andmillennial but also historical and scholarly.Hagiography became more critical with theBollandists, and ecclesiastical history became thoroughly developed and debated, with Catholic scholars such asBaronius andJean Mabillon, and Protestants such asDavid Blondel laying down the lines of scholarship. Christian art of theBaroque and music derived from church forms was striking and influential on lay artists using secular expression and themes. Poetry and drama often treated Biblical and religious matter, for exampleJohn Milton'sParadise Lost.

At the beginning of the centuryJames I of England opposed thepapal deposing power in a series of controversial works,^[2] and the assassination ofHenry IV of France caused an intense focus on the theological doctrines concerned withtyrannicide.^[3] Both Henry and James, in different ways, pursued a peaceful policy of religious conciliation, aimed at eventually healing the breach caused by theProtestant Reformation. While progress along these lines seemed more possible during theTwelve Years' Truce, conflicts after 1620 changed the picture; and the situation of Western and Central Europe after thePeace of Westphalia left a more stable but entrenched polarisation of Protestant and Catholic territorial states, with religious minorities.

The religious conflicts in Catholic France overJansenism andPort-Royal produced the controversial workLettres Provinciales byBlaise Pascal. In it he took aim at the prevailing climate ofmoral theology, a speciality of theJesuit order and the attitude of theCollège de Sorbonne. Pascal argued against thecasuistry at that time deployed in "cases of conscience", particularly doctrines associated withprobabilism.

By the end of the 17th century, theDictionnaire Historique et Critique byPierre Bayle represented the current debates in theRepublic of Letters, a largely secular network of scholars and savants who commented in detail on religious matters as well as those of science. Proponents of wider religious toleration—and a sceptical line on many traditional beliefs—argued with increasing success for changes of attitude in many areas (including discrediting theFalse Decretals and the legend ofPope Joan,magic andwitchcraft,millennialism and extremes of anti-Catholic propaganda, and toleration ofJews in society).

Contention between Catholic and Protestant matters gave rise to a substantialpolemical literature, written both in Latin to appeal to international opinion among the educated, and in vernacular languages. In a climate where opinion was thought open to argument, the production of polemical literature was part of the role ofprelates and other prominent churchmen, academics (in universities) and seminarians (in religious colleges); institutions such asChelsea College inLondon andArras College inParis were set up expressly to favor such writing.

The major debates between Protestants and Catholics proving inconclusive, and theological issues within Protestantism being divisive, there was also a return to theIrenicism: the search for religious peace.David Pareus was a leadingReformed theologian who favored an approach based on reconciliation of views.^[4] Other leading figures such asMarco Antonio de Dominis,Hugo Grotius andJohn Dury worked in this direction.

The last person to beexecuted by fire forheresy in England wasEdward Wightman in 1612. The legislation relating to this penalty was in fact only changed in 1677, after which those convicted on a heresy charge would suffer at mostexcommunication.^[5] Accusations of heresy, whether the revival ofLate Antique debates such as those overPelagianism andArianism or more recent views such asSocinianism in theology andCopernicanism innatural philosophy, continued to play an important part in intellectual life.

At the same time as the judicial pursuit of heresy became less severe, interest indemonology was intense in many European countries. The sceptical arguments against the existence ofwitchcraft anddemonic possession were still contested into the 1680s by theologians. TheGangraena byThomas Edwards used a framework equating heresy and possession to draw attention to the variety of radical Protestant views current in the 1640s.

In 1610,Galileo Galilei published hisSidereus Nuncius, describing observations that he had made with the newtelescope. These and other discoveries exposed difficulties with the understanding of the heavens current since antiquity and raised interest in teachings such as theheliocentric theory ofCopernicus.

In reaction, scholars such asCosimo Boscaglia^[6] maintained that the motion of the Earth and immobility of theSun were heretical, as they contradicted some accounts given in theBible as understood at that time. Galileo's part in the controversies overtheology,astronomy andphilosophy culminated in his trial and sentencing in 1633, on a suspicion of heresy.

TheGalileo affair—the process by which Galileo came into conflict with theRoman Catholic Church over his support of Copernican astronomy—has often been considered a defining moment in the history of therelationship between religion and science.

The Protestant lands at the beginning of the 17th century were concentrated in Northern Europe, with territories inGermany,Scandinavia,England,Scotland, and areas ofFrance, theLow Countries,Switzerland,Kingdom of Hungary andPoland. Heavy fighting, in some cases a continuation of the religious conflicts of the previous centuries, was seen, particularly in the Low Countries and theElectorate of the Palatinate (which saw the outbreak of theThirty Years' War). InIreland there was a concerted attempt to create "plantations" of Protestant settlers in what was a predominantly Catholic country, and fighting with a religious dimension was serious in the 1640s and 1680s. In France the settlement proposed by theEdict of Nantes was whittled away, to the disadvantage of theHuguenot population, and the edict was revoked in 1685.

Protestant Europe was largely divided intoLutheran andReformed (Calvinist) areas, with theChurch of England maintaining a separate position. Efforts to unify Lutherans and Calvinists had little success; and the ecumenical ambition to overcome the schism of the Protestant Reformation remained almost entirely theoretical. The Church of England underWilliam Laud made serious approaches to figures in the Orthodox Church, looking for common ground.

Within Calvinism an important split occurred with the rise ofArminianism; theSynod of Dort of 1618–19 was a national gathering but with international repercussions, as the teaching of Arminius was firmly rejected at a meeting to which Protestant theologians from outside the Netherlands were invited. TheWestminster Assembly of the 1640s was another major council dealing with Reformed theology, and some of its works continue to be important to Protestant denominations.

In the 1640s England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland underwent religious strife comparable to that which its neighbors had suffered some generations before. The rancor associated with these wars is partly attributed to the nature of thePuritan movement, a description of which is found to be unsatisfactory by many historians. In its early stages the Puritan movement (late 16th–17th centuries) stood for reform in the Church of England, within the Calvinist tradition, aiming to make the Church of England resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especiallyGeneva. The Puritans refused to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of theBook of Common Prayer; the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.

TheEnglish Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations betweenParliamentarians andRoyalists. Thefirst (1642–46) andsecond (1648–49)civil wars pitted the supporters ofKing Charles I against the supporters of theLong Parliament, while thethird war (1649–51) saw fighting between supporters ofKing Charles II and supporters of theRump Parliament. The wars ended with the Parliamentary victory at theBattle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.

The war led to the trial andexecution of Charles I, the exile of his son, Charles II, and replacement ofEnglish monarchy with first, theCommonwealth of England (1649–53), and then with aProtectorate (1653–59) underOliver Cromwell's personal rule. In Ireland military victory for the Parliamentarian forces established theProtestant Ascendancy.

After coming to political power as a result of the First English Civil War, the Puritan clergy had an opportunity to set up a national church alongPresbyterian lines; for reasons that were also largely political, they failed to do so effectively. After theEnglish Restoration of 1660 the Church of England was purged within a few years of its Puritan elements. The successors of the Puritans, in terms of their beliefs, are referred to asDissenters andNonconformists, and included those who formed various Reformeddenominations.

Emigration to North America of Protestants, in what becameNew England, was led by a group of Puritanseparatists based in the Netherlands ("the pilgrims"). Establishing a colony atPlymouth in 1620, they received a charter from theKing of England. This successful, though initially quite difficult, colony marked the beginning of the Protestant presence in America (the earlier French, Spanish and Portuguese settlements were Catholic). Unlike the Spanish or French, the English colonists made little initial effort to evangelise the native peoples.^[7]

Pope Paul V andGregory XV ruled in 1617 and 1622 that it was invalid to say that Mary was conceived non-immaculate.Alexander VII declared in 1661 that the soul of Mary was free fromoriginal sin. Popular Marian piety was even more colourful and varied than ever before, and included numerous Marianpilgrimages,Marian Salvedevotions, new Marianlitanies, Marian theatre plays, Marianhymns, Marianprocessions. Marianfraternities, today mostly defunct, had millions of members.^[8]

Toward the latter part of the 17th century,Pope Innocent XI viewed the increasing Turkish attacks against Europe, which were supported by France, as the major threat for the Church. He built a Polish-Austrian coalition for the Turkish defeat atVienna in 1683. Scholars have called him a saintly pope because he reformed abuses by the Church, includingsimony,nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 scudi. By eliminating certain honorary posts and introducing new fiscal policies, Innocent XI was able to regain control of the Church's finances.^[9]

In 1685,gallicanist KingLouis XIV of France issued theRevocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending a century of religious toleration. France forced Catholic theologians to supportconciliarism and denyPapal infallibility. The king threatened Pope Innocent XI with aCatholic Ecumenical Council and a military take-over of the Papal state.^[10] Theabsolute French state used gallicanism to gain control of virtually all major Church appointments as well as many of the Church's properties.^[9][11]

The expansion of theCatholicPortuguese Empire andSpanish Empire, with a significant role played by theRoman Catholic Church, led to aChristianization of theindigenous peoples of the Americas such as theAztecs andIncas. Later waves of colonial expansion such as the struggle forIndia, by theDutch, England, France, Germany, Russia and Spanish led to Christianization beyond Asia, such as Philippines.

During theAge of Discovery, theRoman Catholic Church established a number ofMissions inthe Americas and other colonies in order to spread Christianity in theNew World and to convert the indigenous peoples. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. At the same time, missionaries such asFrancis Xavier as well as otherJesuits,Augustinians,Franciscans andDominicans were moving into Asia and the Far East. These orders often served additionally to their spiritual role as diplomatic intermediaries between local rulers and European countries such as in Persia, where,though they were limited in their success, helped to establish meaningful relations between theSafavid Iran and European powers.^[12]

The most significant failure of Roman Catholic missionary work was inEthiopia. Although its ruler, EmperorSusenyos, had publicly declared his conversion to Catholicism in 1622, the declaration of Roman Catholicism as the official religion in 1626 led to increasing civil war. Following Susenyos' abdication, his son and successorFasilides expelled archbishopAfonso Mendes and hisJesuit brethren in 1633, then in 1665 ordered the remaining religious writings of the Catholics burnt. On the other hand, other missions (notablyMatteo Ricci'sJesuit mission to China) were relatively peaceful and focused on integration rather thancultural imperialism.

The firstCatholic mission in Sichuan was carried out byLodovico Buglio in 1640.^[13] The first Catholic church was built inBeijing in 1650.^[14] The emperor granted freedom of religion to Catholics. Ricci had modified the Catholic faith to Chinese thinking, permitting among other things theveneration of the dead. The Vatican disagreed and forbade any adaptation in the so-calledChinese Rites controversy in 1692 and 1742.

In a dispute withPatriarch Nicephorus of Alexandria,Ecumenical PatriarchParthenius I of Constantinople sided with thehierarchs of theChurch of Sinai by granting them permission to perform religious services in Cairo when Nicephorus was visitingMoldovlachia. After Nicephorus was back in Alexandria, his protests made Parthenius revoke his permission. Still, the tensions over this issue continued between the two Churches.^[15]

In 1641, Parthenius summoned asynod at Constantinople, at which eight prelates and four dignitaries of the church were present. In this synod the termTransubstantiation is said to have been authorised. In the next year Parthenius organized the more importantSynod of Iași.^[16] The purpose of this assembly was to counter certainCatholic andProtestant doctrinal errors which had infiltrated Orthodox theology and to offer a comprehensive Orthodox statement on the truth of faith.^[17] Including representatives of the Greek and Slavic Churches, it condemned theCalvinist teachings ascribed toCyril Lucaris and ratified (a somewhat amended text of)Peter Mogila'sExpositio fidei (Statement of Faith, also known as theOrthodox Confession), a description of Christian orthodoxy in a question and answer format.^[18][19][20] TheStatement of Faith became fundamental for establishing the Orthodox world's attitude towardReformation thought. The major contribution of the synod was the reinforced sense of unity in theEastern Orthodox Church through the promulgation of an authoritative statement agreed upon by all the major sees.^[17]

In 1672, PatriarchDositheos II of Jerusalem convened theSynod of Jerusalem that rejected all the Calvinist doctrines and reformulated Orthodox teachings in a manner that distinguished them from Roman Catholicism as well as Protestantism.

The Synod was attended by most of the prominent representatives of theEastern Orthodox Church, including sixMetropolitans besides Dositheus and his retired predecessor, and its decrees received universal acceptance as an expression of the faith of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Against both the Roman Catholic Church and most Protestants, the Synod affirmed that theHoly Spirit proceeds fromGod the Father alone and not from both Father and Son.^[21]

In the Synod's decrees, called theConfession of Dositheus, it reaffirmed existing Orthodox beliefs incompatible with Calvinist doctrines, restating thatapostolic succession of bishops is necessary, that good works done with faith are required for salvation, that there are seven sacraments, that the Eucharist is both sacrament and sacrifice, offered for the dead as well as for the living.

The fall ofConstantinople in the East, 1453, led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of Russia, the "Third Rome". The Renaissance also stimulated a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "Old believers" consequently resulted and influencedRussian Orthodox theology in the direction ofconservatism andErastianism.

• Esler, Philip F.The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004).ISBN 0-415-33312-1.
• White, L. Michael.From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins (2004).ISBN 0-06-052655-6.
• Freedman, David Noel (Ed).Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000).ISBN 0-8028-2400-5.
• Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan.The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). University of Chicago Press (1975).ISBN 0-226-65371-4.

• Schaff'sThe Seven Ecumenical Councils

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