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The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) imperial church headed byConstantinople continued to assert its universal authority. By the 13th century this assertion was becoming increasingly irrelevant as the Eastern Roman Empire shrank and theOttoman Turks took over most of what was left of theByzantine Empire (indirectly aided byinvasions from the West). The other Eastern European churches in communion with Constantinople were not part of its empire and were increasingly acting independently, achievingautocephalous status and only nominally acknowledging Constantinople's standing in the Church hierarchy. In Western Europe theHoly Roman Empire fragmented making it less of an empire as well.
Scholasticism originally began to reconcile thephilosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. It is not a philosophy or theology in itself, but a tool and method for learning which puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The primary purpose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a question or resolve a contradiction. It is most well known in its application in medieval theology, but was eventually applied to classical philosophy and many other fields of study.
In the 13th century there was an attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as theCathars andWaldensians and the associated rise of themendicant orders (notably theFranciscans andDominicans), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholastic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians asAlexander of Hales (Franciscan) andThomas Aquinas (Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholasticBonaventure (Franciscan). There was also a flourishing ofmystical theology, with women such asMechthild of Magdeburg playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be seen as period in which the study ofNatural Philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' began once again to flourish in the hands of such men asRobert Grosseteste andRoger Bacon.
Notable authors include:
The monastic orders, especially theBenedictines,Cistercians, andPremonstratensians, continued to have an important role in theCatholic Church throughout the 13th century. TheMendicant Orders, which focused on poverty, preaching and other forms of pastoral ministry, were founded at this time. The four Mendicant Orders recognized by theSecond Council of Lyon are:
TheFourth Crusade, authorized byInnocent III in 1202, intended to retake theHoly Land but was soon subverted by Venetians who used the forces to sack the Christian city ofZara. Eventually the crusaders arrived in Constantinople, but rather than proceed to the Holy Land the crusaders instead sacked Constantinople and other parts of Asia Minor effectively establishing theLatin Empire of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor. This was effectively the last crusade sponsored by the papacy; later crusades were sponsored by individuals. Thus, though Jerusalem was held for nearly a century and other strongholds in theNear East remained in Christian possession much longer, the crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms.
Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to theMediterranean though (see also theNorthern Crusades and theBattle of the Ice). The sacking ofConstantinople and theChurch of Holy Wisdom and establishment of theLatin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the OrthodoxByzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004,Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted byPatriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time: holyrelics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularlyVenice.
The crusades in southernSpain, southernItaly, andSicily eventually led to the demise of Islamic power in the regions; theTeutonic Knights expanded Christian domains inEastern Europe; and the much less frequent crusades within Christendom, such as theAlbigensian Crusade, achieved their goal of maintaining doctrinal unity.[1]
TheFourth Crusade was initiated in 1202 byPope Innocent III, with the intention of invading theHoly Land throughEgypt. Because the Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and provisions that they had contracted from theVenetians,DogeEnrico Dandolo enlisted the crusaders to restore the Christian city of Zara (Zadar) to obedience. Because they subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel lease, the leaders decided to go toConstantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the Crusaderssacked the city in 1204 and established the so-calledLatin Empire and a series of otherCrusader states throughout the territories of the GreekByzantine Empire. This is often seen as the final breaking point of theGreat Schism between theEastern Orthodox Church and (Western)Roman Catholic Church.
After theSack of Constantinople, much of Asia Minor was brought under Roman Catholic rule, and theLatin Empire of the East was established. As the conquest by the European crusaders was not exclusive to the fourth crusade, many various kingdoms of European rule were established. After the fall of Constantinople to theLatin West theEmpire of Nicaea was established, which was later to be the origin of the Greek monarchy that defeated the Latin forces of Europe and re-established Orthodox monarchy in Constantinople and Asia Minor.
Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders were not exclusive to the fourth crusade nor theMediterranean. The sacking of Constantinople and theChurch of Holy Wisdom, the destruction of theMonastery of Stoudios,Library of Constantinople and the establishment of theLatin Empire in Constantinople and also throughoutWest Asia Minor and Greece (see theKingdom of Thessalonica,Kingdom of Cyprus) are considered definitive though. This is in light of perceived Roman Catholic atrocities not exclusive to the capital city of Constantinople in 1204 starting the period in the East referred to asFrangokratia. The establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204 was intended to supplant the OrthodoxByzantine Empire. This is symbolized by many Orthodox churches likeHagia Sophia andChurch of the Pantokrator being converted into Roman Catholic properties and it is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Some of the European Christian community actively endorsed the attacking of Eastern Christians.[2]
This was preceded by a European backed attempted conquest of Byzantium, Greece, andBulgaria and other Eastern Christian countries which led to the establishment of theLatin Empire of the East and theLatin Patriarch of Constantinople (with various otherCrusader states).
TheTeutonic Order's attempts to conquerOrthodoxRussia (particularly the Republics ofPskov andNovgorod), an enterprise endorsed byPope Gregory IX,[3] can also be considered as a part of theNorthern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was theBattle of the Ice in 1242. With or without the Pope's blessing, Sweden also undertook severalcrusades against Orthodox Novgorod. Many in the East saw the actions of the West in the Mediterranean as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium which led to the empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam.[4]
TheAlbigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate thehereticalCathars ofOccitania (the south of modern-dayFrance). It was a decade-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.
After apapal legate was murdered by the Cathars in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade.[5] Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future aberrational practices and to root out the remaining Cathars.[6][7] Formalized underPope Gregory IX, thisMedieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height.[7][8] Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat ofMoorish invasion or for political purposes.[9] The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment, torture or execution by burning.[9][10]
TheChildren's Crusade is a series of possibly fictitious or misinterpreted events of 1212. The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which Pope Innocent III interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. The leader of the French army, Stephen, led 30,000 children. The leader of the German army, Nicholas, led 7,000 children. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land; those who did not return home or settle along the route to Jerusalem either died fromshipwreck orhunger, or were sold intoslavery inEgypt orNorth Africa.
By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade afoot, and theFourth Council of the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. In the first phase, a crusading force fromAustria andHungary joined the forces of the king of Jerusalem and theprince of Antioch to take back Jerusalem. In the second phase, crusader forces achieved a remarkable feat in the capture ofDamietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of thepapal legate,Pelagius, they launched a foolhardy attack onCairo in July 1221. The crusaders were turned back after their dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat. A night-time attack by SultanAl-Kamil resulted in a great number of crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the army. Al-Kamil agreed to an eight-year peace agreement with Europe.
Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words, for which he wasexcommunicated byPope Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless set sail fromBrindisi, landed in Palestine, and through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success: Jerusalem,Nazareth, andBethlehem were delivered to the crusaders for a period of ten years.
In 1229 after failing to conquer Egypt, Frederick II of theHoly Roman Empire made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil. This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of theDome of the Rock and theAl-Aqsa Mosque. The peace brought about by this treaty lasted for about ten years.[11] Many of the Muslims though were not happy with Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem, and in 1244, following asiege, the Muslims regained control of the city.[12]
The papal interests represented by theKnights Templar brought on a conflict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year aKhwarezmian force summoned by the Templars stormed Jerusalem. The crusaders were drawn intobattle at La Forbie inGaza. The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were defeated byBaibars' force of Khwarezmian tribesmen. This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to theKingdom of Outremer.
Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done,Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port ofAigues-Mortes in southern France. It was a failure, and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the firstShepherds' Crusade in 1251.
The Eighth Crusade was organized byLouis IX in 1270, again sailing from Aigues-Mortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the crusader states inSyria. However, the crusade was diverted toTunis, where Louis spent only two months before dying. For his efforts, Louis was later canonised.
The futureEdward I of England undertook another expedition againstBaibars in 1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. The Ninth Crusade was deemed a failure and ended the Crusades in the Middle East.[13]
In their later years, faced with the threat of the EgyptianMamluks, the Crusaders' hopes rested with aFranco-Mongol alliance. Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus on these campaigns, the ability to effectively coordinate with Crusades from the west was repeatedly frustrated most notably at theBattle of Ain Jalut in 1260. The Mamluks eventually made good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the Franks. With the fall ofAntioch (1268),Tripoli (1289), andAcre (1291), those Christians unable to leave the cities were massacred orenslaved, and the last traces of Christian rule in theLevant disappeared.[14][15]
The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquerOrthodoxRussia (particularly the Republics ofPskov andNovgorod), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX, can be considered as a part of theNorthern Crusades.[dubious –discuss] One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was theBattle of the Ice in 1242. With or without the Pope's blessing, Sweden also undertook severalcrusades against Orthodox Novgorod.
Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against theStedingers. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were not heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were freeFrisian farmers who resented attempts of the count ofOldenburg and the archbishopBremen-Hamburg to make an end to their freedoms. The archbishop excommunicated them, andPope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.
TheAragonese Crusade, or Crusade of Aragón, was declared byPope Martin IV against theKing of Aragón, Peter III the Great, in 1284 and 1285.
In 1259 Mongols led byBurundai andNogai Khan ravaged the principality ofHalych-Volynia,Lithuania andPoland. After thatPope Alexander IV tried without successto create a crusade against theBlue Horde.
TheSecond Council of Lyon was convoked to act on a pledge by Byzantine emperorMichael VIII to reunite the Eastern church with the West.[16] Wishing to end theGreat Schism that dividedRome andConstantinople, Gregory X had sent an embassy to Michael VIII Palaeologus, who had reconquered Constantinople, putting an end to the remnants of theLatin Empire in the East, and he asked Latin despots in the East to curb their ambitions. On June 29, 1274, Gregory X offeredMass in St John's Church, where both sides took part. The council declared that the Roman church possessed "the supreme and full primacy and authority over the universal Catholic Church."
The council was seemingly a success but did not provide a lasting solution to the schism; the emperor was anxious to heal the schism, but the Eastern clergy proved to be obstinate. However, Michael VII's son and successorAndronicus II repudiated the union.
In 1217,Stefan Nemanjić was proclaimedKing of Serbia, and various questions of the church reorganization were opened.[17] On 15 August 1219, during the feast of theDormition of the Mother of God, archimandriteSava was consecrated byPatriarch Manuel I of Constantinople inNicaea as the first Archbishop of the autocephalous (independent) Serbian Church. The patriarch of Constantinople and his Synod thus appointed Sava as the first archbishop of"Serbian and coastal lands."[18][19][20][21][22] In the same year, Archbishop Sava publishedZakonopravilo (St. Sava's Nomocanon). Thus the Serbs acquired both forms of independence: political and religious.[23]
Archbishop Sava appointed several bishops, sending them around Serbia to organize their dioceses.[24] To maintain his standing as the religious and social leader, he continued to travel among the monasteries and lands to educate the people. In 1221 a synod was held in the Žiča monastery, condemningBogomilism.[25]
Mongol rule in Russia lasted from the 13th century until the 15th century, while theRussian Orthodox Church enjoyed a favored position, obtaining immunity from taxation in 1270. Through a series of wars with Muslim countries the church did indeed establish itself as the protector of Orthodoxy.
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