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By the 10th century, Christianity had spread throughout much of Europe and Asia. TheChurch in England was becoming well established, with its scholarly monasteries, and theRoman Church and theEastern Orthodox Church were continuing their separation, ultimately culminating in theGreat Schism.
With the division and decline of theCarolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it. Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians asGerbert of Aurillac, who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor toOtto III. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the GermanicOttonianHoly Roman Empire, which succeeded the Carolingian Empire.)
From the 6th century onward most of the monasteries in the West were of theBenedictine Order. Owing to the stricter adherence to a reformedBenedictine Rule, theabbey of Cluny in France became the acknowledged leader of western monasticism from the later 10th century. A sequence of highly competentabbots of Cluny were statesmen on an international level. The monastery of Cluny itself became the grandest, most prestigious and best endowed monastic institution in Europe. Cluny created a large federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the abbot of Cluny and answered to him. Free of lay and episcopal interference, responsible only to the papacy, the Cluniac spirit was a revitalising influence on the Norman church. The height of Cluniac influence was from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th.
TheCluniac reform of monasteries that began in 910 placed abbots under the direct control of the pope rather than the secular control of feudal lords, thus eliminating a major source of corruption. This sparked a great monastic renewal.[2] Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries and often functioned as credit establishments promoting economic growth.[3][4]
Monastic contributions to western society included the teaching of metallurgy, the introduction of new crops, the invention of musical notation and the creation and preservation of literature.[5]
Following two decisive victories over the Byzantines atAcheloos (near the present-day city ofPomorie) andKatasyrtai (nearConstantinople), Bulgaria declared the autonomous Bulgarian Archbishopric as autocephalous and elevated it to the rank ofPatriarchate at an ecclesiastical and national council held in 919. After Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire signed a peace treaty in 927 that concluded the20-year-long war between them, thePatriarchate of Constantinople recognised the autocephalous status of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church and acknowledged its patriarchal dignity.[6][7]
The Bulgarian Patriarchate was the first autocephalous Slavic Orthodox Church, preceding the autocephaly of theSerbian Orthodox Church (1219) by 300 years and of theRussian Orthodox Church (1596) by some 600 years. It was the sixth Patriarchate after thePentarchy patriarchates ofRome, Constantinople,Alexandria,Antioch andJerusalem. The seat of the Patriarchate was the new Bulgarian capital ofPreslav.
On April 5, 972, Byzantine EmperorJohn I Tzimisces conquered and burned downPreslav, and captured BulgarianTsarBoris II. Patriarch Damyan managed to escape, initially to Sredetz (Sofia) in western Bulgaria. In the coming years, the residence of the Bulgarian patriarchs remained closely connected to the developments in the war between the next Bulgarian royal dynasty, theComitopuli, and theByzantine Empire. Patriarch German resided consecutively in the medieval Bulgarian cities of Maglen (Almopia) and Voden (Edessa) (both in present-day north-westernGreece), and Prespa (in present-day southernNorth Macedonia). Around 990, the next patriarch, Philip, moved toOhrid (in present-day south-westernNorth Macedonia), which became the permanent seat of the Patriarchate.
The "Baptism of Poland" (Polish:Chrzest Polski) in 966 refers to the baptism ofMieszko I, the first ruler of a united Polish state. His baptism was followed by the building of churches and the establishment of an ecclesiastical hierarchy. Mieszko saw baptism as a way of strengthening his hold on power, with the active support he could expect from the bishops, as well as a unifying force for the Polish people. Mieszko's action proved highly successful; by the 13th century,Roman Catholicism had become the dominantreligion in Poland.
In the Middle Ages, theKingdom of Hungary (which was larger than modern dayHungary) was Christianized between 970 and 1038. Initially the Byzantine Christianity had a significant influence on the Hungarians, but the decisive steps towards the adoption of the new faith were taken byGéza, the head of theHungarian tribal federation (c. 972–997) who supportedWestern missionaries. The reception of Christianity was enforced bylegislation in the reign of Géza's son,Stephen I (997–1038).
Stephen promulgated Roman Catholicism as the state religion, and his successors were traditionally known as theApostolic Kings. TheCatholic Church in Hungary remained strong through the centuries, and theArchbishop of Esztergom was granted extraordinary temporal privileges asprince-primate (hercegprímás) of Hungary.
The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other EastSlavic peoples, most notably theRus', predecessors ofBelarusians,Russians, andUkrainians.
After theFirst Bulgarian Empire was converted to Christianity, it started a massive missionary expansion north and east. As a result, it was able to convert and help convert many EastSlavic peoples and introduce to them Bulgarian books and Church literature in Bulgarian, most notably the Rus' (Ruthenians), predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians/Rusyns. By the beginning of the 11th century most of the pagan Slavic world, including Ukraine, Russia, Bulgaria and Serbia, had been converted to Christianity.
Between the 8th and the 13th century the area was settled by theKievan Rus'. Its Christianization was successful in the 10th century, when about 980Vladimir the Great was baptized atChersonesos. He was also married to the Byzantine princess Anna Porphyrogeneta, the sister of the Byzantine EmperorBasil II. In 988, the Christian Church in Rus' territorially fell under the jurisdiction of theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople after it was officially adopted as the state religion. The Christianisation of Kievan Rus' firmly allied it with the Byzantine Empire. The Greek learning and book culture was adopted in Kiev and other centres of the country. Churches started to be built on the Byzantine model.
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