In the seventh century thepaganAnglo-Saxons were converted toChristianity (Old English:Crīstendōm) mainly by missionaries sent fromRome. Irish missionaries fromIona, who were proponents ofCeltic Christianity, were influential in the conversion ofNorthumbria, but after theSynod of Whitby in 664, the Anglo-Saxon church gave its allegiance to thePope.

Christianity inRoman Britain dates to at least the 3rd century. In 313, theEdict of Milan legalised Christianity, and it quickly became the major religion in theRoman Empire.^[1] The Christian church based its organisation onRoman provinces. The church in each city was led by abishop, and the chief city of the province was led by ametropolitan bishop.^[2] In 314, three British bishops attended theCouncil of Arles:Eborius fromEboracum (York),Restitutus fromLondinium (London), andAdelfius possibly fromLindum Colonia (Lincoln). These cities were provincial capitals, and the bishops were likely metropolitans with authority over the other bishops in their provinces. This suggests the British church was well established by the early 4th century.^[3][4]

It is unclear how widely theRomano-British people adopted Christianity. HistorianMarc Morris writes, "As for organized Christianity in Britain, the evidence suggests it had never been very strongly established in the first place."^[5] While archaeological evidence fromRoman villas indicates that some aristocrats were Christians, Morris argues there is little evidence for the existence of urban churches.^[5] In contrast, historianBarbara Yorke concludes, "When all available evidence is drawn together there is in fact a strong case for permeation of Christianity at all levels of Romano-British society".^[3]

Roman rule ended at the start of the 5th century. After the departure of the Roman army, theBritons recruited theGermanic peoples calledAnglo-Saxons to defend Britain, but they rebelled against their British hosts in 442.^[6] Writing in the 8th century,Bede divided the Anglo-Saxons into three major groups:Angles,Saxons, andJutes. The Angles founded the kingdoms ofEast Anglia,Mercia, andNorthumbria. The Saxons founded the kingdoms ofSussex (South Saxons),Essex (East Saxons), andWessex (West Saxons). The Jutes established theKingdom of Kent and also settled on theIsle of Wight.^[7] The new inhabitants practicedAnglo-Saxon paganism, apolytheistic religion in which multiple gods were worshipped, among themWoden,Thor, andTiw. Woden was the king of the gods, and early English kings traced their ancestry back to him(seeAnglo-Saxon royal genealogies).^[8]

Christianity survived in the Brittonic kingdoms of the west and north. In these regions, the church was organised arounddioceses corresponding to tribal divisions. Influence fromGaul encouraged the spread ofmonasticism within the British church during the 6th century.^[9]

British missionaries, most famouslySaint Patrick, convertedIreland to Christianity. The early medieval churches of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland shared common characteristics often described asCeltic Christianity.^[10] The Celtic andRoman churches disagreed on several issues. The most important was thedate of Easter. There were other differences over baptismal customs and the style oftonsure worn by monks.^[11]

Pope Gregory I (590–604) sent the first missionaries to the Anglo-Saxons, and this mission ultimately culminated in England's absorption into thewestern patriarchate.^[12] Gregory choseAugustine to lead the mission to the Kingdom of Kent.^[13] KingÆthelberht of Kent wasbretwalda, a position that gave him influence over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In addition, Kent had important trade connections withFrancia, and Æthelberht had some exposure to Christianity through his wife,Bertha, a Frankish princess and a Christian.^[14]

Augustine arrived on theIsle of Thanet in 597 and convinced Æthelberht to allow the preaching ofthe gospel.^[15] Augustine established his base at the main town ofCanterbury.^[16] He took over an old Roman church that he named Christ Church (nowCanterbury Cathedral).^[17] Augustine also founded the Monastery of SS. Peter and Paul (later known asSt Augustine's Abbey) outside the city.^[18] Æthelberht was probably converted and baptised in 601.^[19]

In 601, Pope Gregory sent Augustine thepallium of a metropolitan bishop and a letter stating that he was to be archbishop ofLondon. Gregory instructed him to establish twelveepiscopal sees under his jurisdiction. In time, there was to be an archbishop ofYork also with twelve bishops under his jurisdiction. During his lifetime, Augustine was to have precedence over the archbishop of York; afterwards, precedence was to be determined by seniority ofconsecration. However, London belonged to KingSabert of the East Saxons, who was a pagan and sub-king to the bretwalda. It would have been politically impractical to move the metropolitan see to the capital of an inferior ruler. For these reasons, Augustine kept his see in Kent, becoming the firstarchbishop of Canterbury.^[20]

Pope Gregory also wrote that Augustine was to have authority over the native British bishops as well.^[21] After meeting with Augustine, around 603, the British bishops refused to recognize him as their archbishop.^[22] His successor,Laurence of Canterbury, said BishopDagán had refused to either share a roof with the Roman missionaries or to eat with them.^[23]

Through the influence of Æthelberht, his nephew King Sabert did convert.^[24] In 604, Augustine consecratedMellitus as bishop of the East Saxons with his see at London (he was therefore the first knownbishop of London).^[25] In the same year, Augustine consecratedJustus as the firstbishop of Rochester for the people ofwest Kent.^[26] Upon Augustine's death around 604, he was succeeded as archbishop by Laurence of Canterbury, a member of the original mission.^[27]

The church experienced a setback when the paganEadbald succeeded his father Æthelberht in 616. However, Eadbald eventually converted as well. Similarly, the sons of Sabert reverted to paganism after his death and drove Mellitus out of Essex.^[24] KingRædwald of East Anglia converted but retained an altar to the old gods.^[28]

WhenÆthelfrith ofBernicia seized the neighboring kingdom ofDeira,Edwin, son ofÆlla of Deira fled into exile. Around 616, at theBattle of Chester, Æthelfrith ordered his forces to attack a body of monks from the Abbey ofBangor-on-Dee, "If then they cry to their God against us, in truth, though they do not bear arms, yet they fight against us, because they oppose us by their prayers."^[29] Shortly after, Æthelfrith was killed in battle against Edwin, who with the support ofRædwald of East Anglia claimed the throne. Edwin married the ChristianÆthelburh of Kent, daughter of Æthelberht, and sister of KingEadbald of Kent. A condition of their marriage was that she be allowed to continue the practice of her religion. When Æthelburh traveled north to Edwin's court, she was accompanied by the missionerPaulinus of York. Edwin eventually became a Christian, as did members of his court. When Edwin was killed in 633 at theBattle of Hatfield Chase, Æthelburh and her children returned to her brother's court in Kent, along with Paulinus.James the Deacon remained behind to serve as a missioner in thekingdom of Lindsey, but Bernicia and Deira reverted to heathenism.

The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, presumably in interactions with Roman Britain. In 431,Pope Celestine I consecratedPalladius a bishop and sent him to Ireland to minister to the "Scots believing in Christ".^[30] Monks from Ireland, such asFinnian of Clonard, studied in Britain at the monastery ofCadoc the Wise, atLlancarfan and other places. Later, as monastic institutions were founded in Ireland, monks from Britain, such asEcgberht of Ripon andChad of Mercia, went to Ireland. In 563Columba arrived inDál Riata from his homeland of Ireland and was granted land on Iona. This became the centre of his evangelising mission to the Picts.

When Æthelfrith of Northumbria was killed in battle against Edwin and Rædwald at the River Idle in 616, his sons fled into exile. Some of that time was spent in the kingdom ofDál Riata, whereOswald of Northumbria became Christian. At the death of Edwin's successors at the hand ofCadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd, Oswald returned from exile and laid claim to the throne. He defeated the combined forces of Cadwallon andPenda of Mercia at theBattle of Heavenfield. In 634, Oswald, who had spent time in exile at Iona, asked abbotSégéne mac Fiachnaí to send missioners to Northumbria. At first, a bishop named Cormán was sent, but he alienated many people by his harshness, and returned in failure to Iona reporting that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted.Aidan criticised Cormán's methods and was soon sent as his replacement.^[31] Oswald gave Aidan the island of Lindisfarne, near the royal court atBamburgh Castle. Since Oswald was fluent in both one of the and Irish, he often served as interpreter for Aidan. Aidan built churches, monasteries and schools throughout Northumbria.Lindisfarne became an important centre of Insular Christianity under Aidan,Cuthbert,Eadfrith andEadberht. Cuthbert's tomb became a center for pilgrimage.

Around 630Eanswith, daughter ofEadbald of Kent, foundedFolkestone Priory.^[32]

William of Malmesbury says Rædwald had a step-son,Sigeberht of East Anglia, who spent some time in exile in Gaul, where he became a Christian.^[33] After his step-brotherEorpwald was killed, Sigeberht returned and became ruler of the East Angles. Sigeberht's conversion may have been a factor in his achieving royal power, since at that time Edwin of Northumbria and Eadbald of Kent were Christian. Around 631,Felix of Burgundy arrived in Canterbury andArchbishop Honorius sent him to Sigeberht.Alban Butler says Sigeberht met Felix during his time in Gaul and was behind Felix's coming to Anglo-Saxon England.^[34] Felix established his episcopal see atDommoc and a monastery atSoham Abbey. Although Felix's early training may have been influenced by the Irish tradition ofLuxeuil Abbey, his loyalty to Canterbury ensured that the church in East Anglia adhered to Roman norms.^[35] Around 633, Sigeberht welcomed from Ireland,Fursey and his brothersFoillan andUltan and gave them land to establish an abbey atCnobheresburg. Felix and Fursey effected a number of conversions and established many churches in Sigeberht's kingdom. Around the same time Sigeberht established amonastery at Beodricesworth.

Hilda of Whitby was the grand-niece of Edwin of Northumbria. In 627 Edwin and his household were baptized Christian. When Edwin was killed in theBattle of Hatfield Chase, the widowedQueen Æthelburh, her children, and Hilda returned to Kent, now ruled by Æthelburh's brother,Eadbald of Kent. Æthelburh establishedLyminge Abbey, one of the first religious houses to be founded in the new Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It was a double monastery, built on Roman ruins. Æthelburh was the first abbess. It is assumed that Hilda remained with the Queen-Abbess. Nothing further is known of Hild until around 647 when having decided not to join her older sisterHereswith atChelles Abbey in Gaul, Hild returned north. (Chelles had been founded byBathild, the Anglo-Saxon queen consort ofClovis II.) Hild settled on a small parcel of land near the mouth of the river Ware, where under the direction of Aidan of Lindisfarne, she took up religious life. In 649, he appointed her abbess of thedouble monastery ofHartlepool Abbey, previously founded by the Irish recluseHieu.^[36] In 655, in thanksgiving for his victory overPenda of Mercia at theBattle of the Winwæd, KingOswiu brought his year old daughterÆlfflæd to his kinswoman Hilda to be brought up at the abbey.^[37] (Hild was the grand-niece of Edwin of Northumbria; Oswiu was the son of Edwin's sister Acha.) Two years later, Oswiu established a double monastery atStreoneshalh, (later known as Whitby), and appointed Hild abbess. Ælfflæd then grew up there. The abbey became the leading royal nunnery of the kingdom of Deira, a centre of learning, and burial-place of the royal family.

Eormenred of Kent was the son ofKing Eadbald and grandson of KingÆthelberht of Kent. Upon the death of his father, his brotherEorcenberht became king. The description of Eormenred as king may indicate that he ruled jointly with his brother or, alternatively, that as sub-king in a particular area. Upon his death, his two young sons were entrusted to the care of their uncle King Eorcenberht, who was succeeded upon his death by his sonEcgberht. Through the connivance of King Ecgberht's advisor Thunor, the sons of Eormenred were murdered. The king was viewed as having either acquiesced or given the order.^[38] In order to quench the family feud which this kinslaying would have provoked, Ecgberht agreed to pay aweregild for the murdered princelings to their sister. (Weregild was an important legal mechanism in early Germanic society; the other common form of legal reparation at this time was blood revenge. The payment was typically made to the family or to the clan.) The legend claims thatDomne Eafe was offered (or requested) as much land as her pet hind could run around in a single lap. The result, whether miraculous or by the owner's guidance, was that she gained some eightysulungs of land onThanet asweregild, on which to establish the double monastery of St. Mildred's atMinster-in-Thanet.^[32] (cf. the story ofSt. Brigid's miraculous cloak).

A similar situation arose in the North.Eanflæd was the daughter of KingEdwin of Northumbria. Her maternal grandfather was KingÆthelberht of Kent. She was married toOswiu, King of Bernicia. In 651, after seven years of peaceful rule, Oswiu declared war onOswine, King of neighboringDeira. Oswine, who belonged to the rival Deiran royal family, was Oswiu's maternal second cousin.^[39]

Oswine refused to engage in battle, instead retreating toGilling and the home of his friend, Earl Humwald.^[40] Humwald betrayed Oswine, delivering him to Oswiu's soldiers by whom Oswine was put to death.^[41] In Anglo-Saxon culture, it was assumed that the nearest kinsmen to a murdered person would seek to avenge the death or require some other kind of justice on account of it (such as the payment of weregild). However, Oswine's nearest kinsman was Oswiu's own wife, Eanflæd, also second cousin to Oswine.^[42] In compensation for her kinsman's murder, Eanflæd demanded a substantial weregild, which she then used to establishGilling Abbey.^[43] The monastery was staffed in part by the relatives of both of their families, and given the task of offering prayers for both Oswiu's salvation and Oswine's departed soul. By founding the monastery shortly after Oswine's death,^[44] Oswiu and Eanflæd avoided the creation of a feud.^[45]

By the early 660s, Insular Christianity received from the monks of Iona was standard in the north and west, while the Roman tradition brought by Augustine was the practice in the south. In the Northumbrian court King Oswiu followed the tradition of the missionary monks from Iona, while QueenEanflæd, who had been brought up in Kent followed the Roman tradition. The result was that one portion of the court would be celebrating Easter, while the other was still observing the Lenten fast.

At that time, Kent, Essex, and East Anglia were following Roman practice. Oswiu's eldest son,Alhfrith, son ofRhiainfellt ofRheged, seems to have supported the Roman position.Cenwalh of Wessex recommendedWilfrid, a Northumbrian churchman who had recently returned from Rome,^[46] to Alhfrith as a cleric well-versed in Roman customs and liturgy.^[47] Alhfrith gave Wilfrid a monastery he had recently founded at Ripon, withEata, abbot ofMelrose Abbey and former student of Aidan of Lindisfarne.^[48] Wilfrid ejected Abbot Eata, because he would not conform to Roman customs; and Eata returned to Melrose.^[47]Cuthbert, the guest-master was also expelled.^[49] Wilfrid introduced a form of theRule of Saint Benedict into Ripon.

In 664, King Oswiu convened a meeting at Hild's monastery to discuss the matter. The Celtic party was led by Abbess Hilda, and bishopsColmán of Lindisfarne andCedd ofLæstingau. (In 653, upon the occasion of the marriage of Oswiu's daughter Alchflaed withPeada of Mercia, Oswiu had sent Cedd to evangelize theMiddle Angles of Mercia.) The Roman party was led by Wilfrid andAgilbert.

The meeting did not proceed entirely smoothly due to variety of languages spoken, which probably includedOld Irish,Old English,Frankish andOld Welsh, as well asLatin. Bede recounted that Cedd interpreted for both sides.^[50] Cedd's facility with the languages, together with his status as a trusted royal emissary, likely made him a key figure in the negotiations. His skills were seen as an eschatological sign of the presence of theHoly Spirit, in contrast to the Biblical account of theTower of Babel.^[51]Colman appealed to the practice of St. John; Wilfrid to St. Peter. Oswiu decided to follow Roman rather than Celtic rite, saying "I dare not longer contradict the decrees of him who keeps the doors of the Kingdom of Heaven, lest he should refuse me admission".^[52] Some time after the conference Colman resigned the see of Lindisfarne and returned to Ireland.

A number of Anglo-Saxon saints are connected to royalty.^[53] KingÆthelberht of Kent and his wifeQueen Bertha were later regarded as saints for their role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. Their granddaughterEanswith founded Folkestone Priory, in 630 the first monastery in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms for women.^[54] Her auntÆthelburh foundedLyminge Abbey about four miles northwest of Folkestone on the south coast of Kent around 634. In a number of instances, the individual retired from court to take up the religious life. The sistersMildrith,Mildburh, andMildgyth, great granddaughters of King Æthelberht and Queen Bertha, and all abbesses at various convents, were revered as saints.Ceolwulf of Northumbria abdicated his throne and entered the monastery at Lindisfarne.^[55]

In some cases, where the death of a member of royalty appears to be largely politically motivated, it was viewed as martyrdom due to the circumstances. The murdered princesÆthelred and Æthelberht were later commemorated as saints and martyrs.Oswine of Deira was betrayed by a trusted friend to soldiers of his enemy and kinsmanOswiu of Bernicia. Bede described Oswine as "most generous to all men and above all things humble; tall of stature and of graceful bearing, with pleasant manner and engaging address".^[56] Likewise, the sons ofArwald of theIsle of Wight were betrayed toCædwalla of Wessex, but because they were converted and baptized by Abbot Cynibert of Hreutford immediately before being executed, they were considered saints.^[57]Edward the Martyr was stabbed to death on a visit to his stepmotherQueen Ælfthryth and his stepbrother, the boyÆthelred while dismounting from his horse, although there is no indication that he was particularly noted for virtue.

Royalty could use their affiliation to such cults in order to claim legitimacy against competitors to the throne.^[58] A dynasty may have had accrued prestige for having a saint in its family.^[59] Promoting a particular cult may have aided a royal family in claiming political dominance over an area, particularly if that area was recently conquered.^[59]

In 644, the twenty-five year oldEcgberht of Ripon was a student at the monastery ofRath Melsigi when he and many others fell ill of the plague. He vowed that if he recovered, he would become a perpetual pilgrimage from his homeland of Britain and would lead a life of penitential prayer and fasting.^[60] He began to organize a mission to theFrisians, but was dissuaded from going by a vision related to him by a monk who had been a disciple of SaintBoisil, prior ofMelrose. Ecgberht then recruited others.

Around 677, Wilfrid, bishop of York quarreled with KingEcgfrith of Northumbria and was expelled from his see. Wilfrid went to Rome to appeal Ecgfrith's decision.^[61] On the way he stopped inUtrecht at the court ofAldgisl, the rulers of the Frisians, for most of 678. Wilfrid may have been blown off course on his trip from Anglo-Saxon lands to the continent, and ended up in Frisia; or he may have intended to journey via Frisia to avoidNeustria, whoseMayor of the Palace,Ebroin, disliked Wilfrid.^[49] While Wilfrid was at Aldgisl's court, Ebroin offered a bushel of gold coins in return for Wilfrid, alive or dead. Aldgisl's hospitality to Wilfrid was in defiance of Frankish domination.

The first missioner was Wihtberht who went to Frisia about 680 and labored for two years with the permission ofAldgisl; but being unsuccessful, Wihtberht returned to Briiain.^[62]Willibrord grew up under the influence of Wilfrid, studied under Ecgberht of Ripon, and spent twelve years at the Abbey of Rath Melsigi. Around 690, Ecgberht sent him and eleven companions to Christianise the Frisians. In 695 Willibrord was consecrated in Rome, Bishop of Utrecht. In 698 he established theAbbey of Echternach on the site of a Roman villa donated by theAustrasian noblewomanIrmina of Oeren. Aldgisl's successorRedbad was less supportive than his father, likely because the missionaries were favored byPepin of Herstal, who sought to expand his territory into Frisia.

In 716,Boniface joined Willibrord in Utrecht. Their efforts were frustrated by the war betweenCharles Martel andRedbad, King of the Frisians. Willibrord fled to the abbey he had founded in Echternach, while Boniface returned to the Benedictine monastery atNhutscelle. The following year he traveled to Rome, where he was commissioned byPope Gregory II as a traveling missionary bishop for Germania.

The Benedictine reform was led by SaintDunstan over the latter half of the 10th century. It sought to revive church piety by replacing secular canons- often under the direct influence of local landowners, and often their relatives- with celibate monks, answerable to the ecclesiastical hierarchy and ultimately to the Pope. This deeply split the newly formed kingdom of England, bringing it to the point of civil war, with the East Anglian nobility (such asAthelstan Half-King,Byrhtnoth) supporting Dunstan and the Wessex aristocracy (Ordgar,Æthelmær the Stout) supporting the secularists. These factions mobilised around KingEadwig (anti-Dunstan) and his brother KingEdgar (pro). On the death of Edgar, his sonEdward the Martyr was assassinated by the anti-Dunstan faction and their candidate, the young kingÆthelred was placed on the throne. However this "most terrible deed since the English came from over the sea" provoked such a revulsion that the secularists climbed down, although Dunstan was effectively retired.

This split fatally weakened the country in the face of renewed Viking attacks.

The English church was divided into twoecclesiastical provinces each with its ownarchbishop. In the south, theProvince of Canterbury was led by thearchbishop of Canterbury. In the north, theProvince of York was led by thearchbishop of York. Theoretically, neither archbishop had precedence over the other. In reality, the southern province had more dioceses and was wealthier than the northern province. As a result, Canterbury dominated.^[63]

In 669,Theodore of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury. In 672 he convened theCouncil of Hertford which was attended by a number of bishops from across the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. This Council was a milestone in the organization of the Anglo-Saxon Church, as the decrees passed by its delegates focused on issues of authority and structure within the church.^[64] Afterwards Theodore, visiting the whole of Anglo-Saxon held lands, consecrated new bishops and divided up the vast dioceses which in many cases were coextensive with the kingdoms of the heptarchy.^[65]

Initially, the diocese was the only administrative unit in the Anglo-Saxon church. The bishop served the diocese from acathedral town with the help of a group of priests known as the bishop'sfamilia. These priests would baptise, teach and visit the remoter parts of the diocese.Familiae were placed in other important settlements, and these were calledminsters.^[66]

In the late 10th century, theBenedictine Reform movement helped to restoremonasticism in England after the Viking attacks of the 9th century. The most prominent reformers were ArchbishopDunstan of Canterbury (959–988), BishopÆthelwold of Winchester (963–984), and ArchbishopOswald of York (971–992). The reform movement was supported by KingEdgar (r. 959–975). One result of the reforms was the creation of monastic cathedrals atCanterbury,Worcester,Winchester, andSherborne. These were staffed bycloistered monks, while other cathedrals were staffed bysecular clergy calledcanons. By 1066, there were over 45monasteries in England, and monks were chosen as bishops more often than in other parts of western Europe.^[67]

Most villages would have had a church by 1042,^[67] as theparish system developed as an outgrowth ofmanorialism. Theparish church was aprivate church built and endowed by thelord of the manor, who retained theright to nominate the parish priest. The priest supported himself by farming hisglebe and was also entitled to other support from parishioners. The most important was thetithe, the right to collect one-tenth of all produce from land or animals. Originally, the tithe was a voluntary gift, but the church successfully made it a compulsory tax by the 10th century.^[68]

By 1000, there were eighteen dioceses in England:Canterbury,Rochester,London,Winchester,Dorchester,Ramsbury,Sherborne,Selsey,Lichfield,Hereford,Worcester,Crediton,Cornwall,Elmham,Lindsey,Wells,York andDurham. To assist bishops in supervising the parishes and monasteries within their dioceses, the office ofarchdeacon was created. Once a year, the bishop would summon parish priests to the cathedral for a synod.^[69]

850—925

950—1035

The dioceses of Anglo-Saxon England 850—1035

The king was regarded not only as the head of the church but also "thevicar of Christ among a Christian folk".^[70] Bishops were chosen by the king and tended to be recruited from among royal chaplains or monasteries. The bishop-elect was then presented at a synod where clerical approval was obtained and consecration followed. The appointment of an archbishop was more complicated and required approval from thepope. The Archbishop of Canterbury had to travel to Rome to receive thepallium, his symbol of office. These visits to Rome and the payments that accompanied them (such asPeter's Pence) was a point of contention.^[71] Æthelwold of Winchester'sRegularis Concordia which laid down rules for the government of the church, provided that the monks of a cathedral monastery had the right to elect their bishop. This was approved by a synodical council in 973, but largely ignored.^[72]

Bishops played a crucial role in government, advising the king, presiding over shire courts and taking parts in meetings of the king's council, thewitan. Even more importantly, the church was a wealthy institution—owning 25 to 33 per cent of all land according to theDomesday Book. In this capacity, bishops and abbots had similar status and power to secular magnates, and it was vital to the king that trustworthy men occupied these positions.^[73]

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